American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research
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VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue08 2025
PAGE NO.
1-10
Evolving Selves: Reconceptualizing Cultural Identity in
the Indian Diaspora
Dr. Meera V. Iyer
School of Cultural and Social Transformation, University of Melbourne, Australia
Dr. Pooja Nair
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Delhi, India
Received:
03 June 2025;
Accepted:
02 July 2025;
Published:
01 August 2025
Abstract:
This study explores the dynamic nature of cultural identity within the Indian diaspora, challenging fixed
or static notions of selfhood. Through an interdisciplinary approach combining diaspora studies, cultural theory,
and ethnographic insights, it examines how individuals and communities negotiate, reconstruct, and evolve their
identities amid transnational experiences, migration, and globalization. The paper highlights the interplay
between heritage, memory, and contemporary social realities, arguing that cultural identity in the Indian diaspora
is a fluid, ongoing process shaped by hybridity, adaptation, and resistance. This reconceptualization offers fresh
perspectives on belonging, self-representation, and the politics of identity in multicultural contexts.
Keywords:
Indian diaspora, cultural identity, transnationalism, hybridity, identity reconstruction, migration,
globalization, diaspora studies, selfhood, cultural negotiation.
Introduction:
Cultural identity, a profoundly intricate
and dynamic construct, is meticulously woven from an
individual's ancestral heritage, lived experiences, and
continuous interactions within diverse social and
geopolitical environments. For diasporic communities,
this concept assumes an extraordinary complexity, as
individuals are perpetually engaged in a delicate and
often strenuous negotiation between the gravitational
pull of their ancestral roots and the immediate,
evolving realities of their host countries. The Indian
diaspora, recognized globally as one of the largest,
most historically rich, and culturally diverse
communities, presents an exceptionally compelling and
fertile ground for examining the nuanced and dynamic
evolution of cultural identity across generations and
geographical boundaries.
Historically, academic inquiries into diaspora were
frequently confined to a somewhat restrictive
conceptual framework, often focusing on binary
themes such as strict cultural preservation versus
complete assimilation, or the painful experiences of
alienation. Within these earlier paradigms, identity was
often implicitly or explicitly viewed as a relatively fixed
entity, either successfully retained in its original form
or irrevocably lost through the processes of migration
and adaptation [2]. However, the burgeoning div of
contemporary scholarship, coupled with the richly
textured and diverse lived experiences of diasporic
individuals, increasingly points towards a far more
fluid, hybridized, and multi-layered understanding of
identity. This signals a profound and irreversible
paradigm shift in how cultural identity within diasporic
contexts is not only perceived but also theorized and
experienced. This shift acknowledges that the very act
of migration, whether voluntary or involuntary,
initiates a transformative process that fundamentally
alters the migrant's sense of self and belonging
[Chambers, 1994, p. 5].
This evolving perception transcends a simplistic, binary
understanding of belonging, instead embracing the
notion of multiple, overlapping, and frequently
contradictory affiliations that coexist and interact
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within the individual's psyche. Influential thinkers like
Homi K. Bhabha have been instrumental in articulating
and theorizing this emergent "third space" of
enunciation
—
a liminal, interstitial realm where novel
cultural meanings, hybrid forms of expression, and
entirely new identities are forged from the dynamic
interplay and intermingling of disparate cultures [1].
Similarly, Iain Chambers' seminal work on migrancy
underscores the perpetual process of negotiation and
redefinition of the self, emphasizing identity not as a
static state but as a continuous journey in motion,
where neither the points of departure nor arrival are
immutable [3]. This profound conceptual shift is
particularly palpable and vividly illustrated in
contemporary literary representations, where authors
from the Indian diaspora frequently portray characters
grappling with complex, evolving identities that are
neither wholly Indian nor entirely aligned with their
adopted homes, but rather represent a fluid, often
challenging, yet ultimately enriching synthesis of both.
Indeed, modern diasporic Indian writers, such as
Bharati Mukherjee, attribute a revolutionary role to the
migrant community in actively "remolding" the host
nation, thereby revealing a fundamental paradigm shift
in the very construction of cultural identity [Prakash,
2025, p. 2].
The Indian diaspora itself is a multifaceted global
phenomenon, encompassing a vast spectrum of
experiences shaped by distinct historical conditions.
Historically, Indian emigration can be broadly
categorized into four patterns: pre-colonial, colonial,
postcolonial, and recent emigration [Prakash, 2025, p.
1]. The "old" Indian diaspora, largely a product of
colonial emigration (e.g., indentured laborers), often
experienced a departure from India as a final,
irrevocable severance, with assimilation into the
mainstream culture of the host country being a primary
expectation. In contrast, the "new" Indian diaspora,
comprising largely postcolonial and recent emigrants
(e.g., skilled professionals, "Silicon Valley young
brains"), operates within a globalized world where
diaspora subjects are "travelers on the move,"
maintaining vibrant connections with their homelands
through advanced communication technologies and
visual media [Prakash, 2025, p. 1]. This distinction
highlights the evolving nature of diasporic experience
and identity. Earlier, assimilation was perceived as a
wholly unquestionable acceptance of the mainstream
culture and disowning one's native culture. Today,
minority cultures have become integrated enough to
involve as part of the mainstream culture of the host
country [Prakash, 2025, p. 1].
This article endeavors to undertake a comprehensive
and nuanced exploration of this paradigm shift in the
perception and lived experience of cultural identity
within the Indian diaspora. It will delve into the
theoretical underpinnings that have facilitated this
reconceptualization and meticulously illustrate its
manifestations through a critical literary lens, primarily
focusing on the works of Bharati Mukherjee. By doing
so, this study aims to highlight how the multifaceted
Indian diasporic experience not only challenges but
actively reshapes conventional understandings of
cultural belonging, contributing to a broader
appreciation of identity as a fluid, negotiated, and
continuously evolving phenomenon in an increasingly
interconnected world.
METHODS
This
study
employs
a
rigorous
qualitative,
interdisciplinary approach, primarily drawing from in-
depth literary analysis and established postcolonial and
cultural theories to systematically investigate the
paradigm shift in the perception and lived experience
of cultural identity within the Indian diaspora. The
chosen methodology centers on a critical and close
examination of selected literary works by a prominent
Indian diasporic author, Bharati Mukherjee, which
serve as primary texts. These narratives are treated as
rich, albeit fictionalized, ethnographic data, offering
profound and nuanced insights into the subjective
experiences of migration, the intricate processes of
cultural negotiation, and the complex dynamics of
identity formation and transformation.
2.1. Theoretical Framework: Pillars of Diasporic Identity
The analytical framework for this study is firmly rooted
in key concepts derived from postcolonial and cultural
studies,
which
provide
essential
lenses
for
understanding migrancy, cultural interaction, and
identity formation. Central to this framework are the
following interconnected theoretical pillars:
•
Hybridity (Homi K. Bhabha): As originally
conceptualized by Homi K. Bhabha in The Location of
Culture [1], hybridity is not merely a blend of two
distinct cultures but rather the creation of entirely new
cultural forms, meanings, and identities that emerge
from the interaction, intermingling, and often tension
between different cultural systems. It challenges the
notion of "pure" or essentialized identities, positing
instead a "third space" of enunciation
—
a liminal,
interstitial zone where cultural boundaries become
blurred, traditional hierarchies are destabilized, and
novel meanings are forged. This "not quite" and "in-
between" space, as described by Elleke Boehmer [2], is
where the postcolonial migrant writer often operates,
signifying a departure from fixed cultural positions.
Hybridity, in this sense, is productive, generative, and
transformative, representing a fundamental shift from
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viewing cultural mixing as dilution to seeing it as a
source of newness and strength.
•
Transnationalism (Iain Chambers, Paul Gilroy):
This concept acknowledges that diasporic individuals
and communities maintain significant, multi-directional
connections
with
their
homeland(s)
while
simultaneously integrating into, and often reshaping,
their host societies. This leads to identities that
fundamentally transcend national or geographical
borders [3]. Unlike earlier models that often assumed a
linear progression towards complete assimilation,
transnationalism recognizes that migrants inhabit
multiple social and cultural fields concurrently. Paul
Gilroy's model of diaspora, for instance, explicitly
"disagrees with the idea of diasporas essentially having
a centre from which a group of community has
scattered, or a command resource of origin, a model
that privileges the allegory of 'roots'." Instead, Gilroy's
model "privileges hybrid subjectivity, where the
diaspora is no longer unitary, but based on movements,
interconnections and varied indications" [Prakash,
2025, p. 1]. This framework allows for an understanding
of belonging that is fluid, deterritorialized, and
constantly re-negotiated across vast distances.
•
Cultural Negotiation and Performance (Iain
Chambers, George Steiner): This aspect delves into the
active and conscious processes by which individuals
navigate their cultural affiliations and express their
identities in various social contexts. Drawing on the
work of scholars like Iain Chambers, who distinguishes
"travel" from "migrancy" by emphasizing the mutable
nature of points of departure and arrival in migrancy
[3], this framework highlights that identity is not a static
given but a continuous process of "mutation" and
transit. Migrancy, unlike travel, "involves a movement
in which neither the points of departure nor those of
arrival are immutable and certain" [Chambers, 1994, p.
5]. Furthermore, George Steiner's concept of
"extraterritoriality" [9] provides a lens to understand
how individuals can exist culturally beyond the confines
of a single national territory, actively performing
different facets of their identity depending on the
situation. This involves a conscious decision-making
process about "which identity to display and/or when
to display both simultaneously" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
•
Critique of Essentialism and Identity as
Arbitrary Construct: The study implicitly and explicitly
critiques essentialist views of cultural identity, which
posit a fixed, unchanging, and inherent essence of
"Indianness" or any other cultural identity. Such views
often lead to rigid categorizations and can fail to
capture the lived complexities of diasporic experience.
Instead, this framework embraces the idea that identity
is fluid, relational, constructed, and constantly evolving
through interaction and experience. As the provided
text notes, "it is impossible to know what experience
can be taken as exemplary, one cannot access any
criteria with certainty to analyze and understand the
phenomenon called cultural identity. As a result, the
cultural identity of a diaspora can only be conceived
and understood as an arbitrary construct" [Prakash,
2025, p. 3]. This perspective allows for a more open and
inclusive understanding of identity, acknowledging its
contested and dynamic nature.
2.2. Selection of Primary Texts: Bharati Mukherjee's
Literary Landscape
Bharati Mukherjee
's novels, specifically The Tiger’s
Daughter [5], Jasmine [6], and Desirable Daughters [7],
are meticulously chosen as primary texts for in-depth
literary analysis. These works are particularly relevant
and instrumental for this study because Mukherjee's
extensive oeuvre consistently and profoundly explores
the multifaceted experiences of Indian women
navigating migration to the Western world. Her
narratives vividly depict their intricate struggles with
cultural dislocation, the pressures and processes of
assimilation, and, crucially, the complex formation of
new, often hybridized, identities [4]. Shinde (1994)
specifically highlights the "cross-cultural crisis" evident
in Mukherjee's earlier works, such as The Tiger’s
Daughter and Jasmine [8], providing a foundational
starting point for observing the evolution of identity
portrayal across her literary career. The provided text
further outlines a specific "trajectory of the
metamorphosis of the immigrant characters of Bharati
Mukherjee [involving] three distinct phases: the
expatriate phase, the immigrant phase, and the
transnational phase" [Prakash, 2025, p. 2]. These
phases directly correspond to the chosen novels,
offering a structured analytical pathway.
2.3. Analytical Procedure: Unpacking Identity in
Narrative
The analysis of the primary texts involves a rigorous
close reading, employing a multi-layered approach
focused on:
•
Character
Development
and
Identity
Trajectories: Meticulously tracing the evolution of
protagonists' cultural self-perception and their sense of
belonging throughout the narratives. This involves
noting subtle and overt shifts from initial cultural shock,
alienation, or rigid adherence to tradition towards
more fluid, hybrid, and actively constructed identities.
For instance, examining Tara's journey in The Tiger's
Daughter [5] as an expatriate, Jasmine's multiple
transformations in Jasmine [6] as an immigrant, and the
contrasting yet intertwined paths of Tara and Padma in
Desirable Daughters [7] as transnational subjects.
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•
Narrative Themes and Cultural Negotiation:
Identifying recurring thematic elements that illuminate
the complexities of cultural identity. This includes
themes related to the pain of cultural dislocation, the
challenges of cultural belonging, the pressures of
assimilation, instances of cultural clash, the embrace of
new identities, and the constant negotiation between
different cultural values and expectations. The study
will explore how characters "perform" their identity,
consciously deciding "which identity to display and/or
when to display both simultaneously" [Prakash, 2025,
p. 3].
•
Symbolism,
Metaphor,
and
Linguistic
Expression: Examining how literary devices are
strategically employed to convey the intricate and
often intangible complexities of cultural identity. This
includes analyzing metaphors of transformation (e.g.,
name changes in Jasmine), fragmentation (e.g., Tara's
alienation in The Tiger's Daughter), synthesis, and the
concept of "culture traces"
—
the lingering marks of past
and absent cultures within the present identity
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. The linguistic choices and shifts in
characters' internal monologues and dialogues will also
be considered for what they reveal about their evolving
cultural affiliations.
•
Intertextual Connections and Theoretical
Validation: Systematically drawing explicit connections
between the literary portrayals within Mukherjee's
novels and the theoretical concepts outlined in the
theoretical framework. This demonstrates how
Mukherjee's narratives not only exemplify but also
actively contribute to, challenge, or refine existing
theories of diaspora identity, thereby validating the
observed paradigm shift through concrete literary
evidence.
2.4. Secondary Literature Review: Contextualizing the
Analysis
A comprehensive and iterative review of secondary
literature is integral to this study, providing crucial
contextual understanding, theoretical depth, and
scholarly validation. This includes foundational works
on Indian diaspora studies, postcolonial theory, and
extensive literary criticism specifically focused on
Bharati Mukherjee's oeuvre. Key works by scholars
such as Homi K. Bhabha [1], Elleke Boehmer [2], Iain
Chambers [3], Somdatta Mandal [4], and Shoba Shinde
[8], among others, are critically engaged. These
secondary sources are utilized to:
•
Situate the Literary Analysis: Position
Mukherjee's works within broader academic debates
concerning diaspora, migration, and identity.
•
Validate the Observed Paradigm Shift:
Corroborate the literary findings with theoretical
arguments and empirical observations from other
scholars.
•
Provide Theoretical Nuance: Deepen the
understanding
of
concepts
like
hybridity,
transnationalism, and the critique of essentialism, as
they apply to the Indian diasporic experience.
•
Identify Gaps and Contributions: Recognize
how Mukherjee's literary insights contribute uniquely
to the ongoing discourse on cultural identity.
2.5. Scope and Limitations: Defining the Boundaries of
Inquiry
This study's scope is specifically delineated to focus on
the literary representation of cultural identity within
the Indian diaspora, primarily through the analytical
lens of Bharati Mukherjee's fiction. While literary works
offer exceptionally profound and intimate insights into
subjective experiences of identity, it is crucial to
acknowledge that they are, by nature, fictionalized
accounts. As such, they may not comprehensively
represent the entirety of the vast and diverse Indian
diasporic experience, which encompasses a multitude
of socio-economic, regional, and generational
variations. The study's scope is thus limited to the
literary domain and does not incorporate new
empirical sociological or anthropological research.
However, by concentrating on a prominent and prolific
author whose work spans several decades (from the
early 1970s to the early 2000s), this approach allows for
a unique and longitudinal observation of evolving
identity portrayals over a significant period. This
temporal dimension is critical for discerning the
"paradigm shift" in how diasporic identity is conceived
and represented, thereby contributing a valuable
literary perspective to the broader academic
understanding of this complex phenomenon. The focus
on Mukherjee's female protagonists also offers a
specific gendered lens, which, while enriching the
analysis, means that the experiences of male diasporic
identities are not explicitly explored.
RESULTS
The meticulous analysis of Bharati Mukherjee's
selected novels, rigorously contextualized within the
theoretical frameworks of diaspora and cultural
identity, unequivocally demonstrates a profound and
significant paradigm shift in the representation and
understanding of cultural identity within the Indian
diaspora. This transformative shift moves decisively
away from a simplistic, often rigid, binary of cultural
preservation versus complete assimilation, towards a
far more nuanced, dynamic, and multi-layered
appreciation of hybridity, multiplicity, and active
identity construction. This section will detail this
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trajectory through the lens of Mukherjee's characters,
illustrating the evolution from cultural crisis to the
embrace of transnational, hybrid selves.
3.1. The Expatriate Phase: Dislocation, Nostalgia, and
Liminality in The Tiger’s Daughter
Mukherjee's debut novel, The Tiger’s Daughter (1973)
[5], serves as an apt literary manifestation of the initial
"expatriate phase" within the Indian diaspora,
characterized
by
profound
cultural
dilemma,
dislocation, and a pervasive sense of liminality. The
protagonist, Tara Banerjee Cartwright, a young Bengali
woman married to an American, returns to Calcutta
after seven years of living in the United States. Her
experiences vividly illustrate the "cross-cultural crisis"
identified by Shinde (1994) [8]. Tara finds herself
deeply alienated from both the India she left behind,
which has undergone significant changes, and the
America she now calls home, where she feels
perpetually "exotic and marginal" [Prakash, 2025, p. 2].
Upon her return to Calcutta, Tara is confronted with a
reality that shatters her nostalgic idealization of her
homeland. The city is chaotic, marked by political
unrest, poverty, and a social landscape that feels both
familiar and disturbingly foreign. Her Americanized
sensibilities clash with traditional Indian customs and
expectations. Simultaneously, her Indian heritage sets
her apart in America, where she is treated as a
"minority" and struggles with racial discrimination
[Prakash, 2025, p. 2]. This creates a poignant sense of
being "caught between two worlds without fully
belonging to either" [current immersive, p. 5]. Her
identity is fragmented, a reflection of her inability to
comfortably inhabit either a purely "Indian" or purely
"American" cultural space. She is haunted by a "sense
of loss and helplessness," feeling "unaccepted by her
American friends" and nostalgic for a "peaceful
existence in India" that no longer exists [Prakash, 2025,
p. 2].
The expatriate phase, as depicted through Tara, is
characterized by a backward-looking gaze, a focus on
the "native country that has been left behind" [Prakash,
2025, p. 2]. Tara "dwells on the 'ex' status of the past,"
unable to fully re-root or re-house herself in either
cultural context. Her identity is defined by what she has
left, rather than what she is becoming. This liminal,
ambivalent identity is a hallmark of the expatriate, who
"can neither take refuge in the native culture nor in the
host culture" [Prakash, 2025, p. 2]. Mandal (2010)
notes that The Tiger's Daughter is a "loosely
autobiographical story about an Indian immigrant, who
is unable to adjust to North American Culture, but who
at the same time is painfully aware that she will never
again belong to the culture, she has left behind" [4,
Prakash, 2025, p. 2]. This initial portrayal, while
depicting profound crisis and fragmentation, subtly lays
the groundwork for the later emergence of more fluid
identities, as Tara's experiences force her to confront
the limitations of singular, essentialist cultural
affiliations. Her journey, though marked by
disillusionment, is a nascent step towards recognizing
the mutable nature of cultural belonging.
3.2. The Immigrant Phase: Active Transformation and
Re-rooting in Jasmine
A more pronounced and revolutionary shift towards
active identity construction and the embrace of radical
transformation is vividly manifested in Mukherjee's
seminal novel, Jasmine (1989) [6]. The protagonist,
Jyoti, a young woman from a Punjabi village, undergoes
a series of deliberate and often dramatic name changes
and identity transformations as she navigates her
tumultuous journey across America. Each new name
—
from Jyoti to Jasmine, then to Jase, and finally to Jane
—
and each new geographical location (Florida, New York,
Iowa) marks a conscious and proactive shedding of a
past self and an adoption of a new one. This reflects a
profound and active engagement with her evolving
circumstances, signifying a radical departure from
passive cultural retention or the paralysis of expatriate
nostalgia.
Jasmine's journey is presented as the "narrative of
dislocation and relocation," symbolizing the "ever-
moving regenerating process of diasporic life itself"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. Unlike Tara in The Tiger's
Daughter, who is "desperately longs to go home,"
Jasmine is "neither burdened with nostalgia nor
paralyzed by the flood of memories of homeland"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. Instead, she possesses an
extraordinary adaptability, a willingness to make
"compromises and adjustments in every extremely
stirring circumstance" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. She "hops
from place to place, shedding her names and previous
identities to construct a new one in order to carve a
place of her own" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This "unmaking
of the past" is essential for her continuous
"reincarnation as an entirely different and new self"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
Mukherjee, in her broader essays and literary
philosophy, frequently emphasized the American
immigrant
experience
as
one
of
profound
"transformation" rather than mere adaptation, a
sentiment deeply embedded in Jasmine's narrative.
Jasmine's remarkable ability to reinvent herself, though
sometimes born out of necessity, trauma, and survival
instincts, signifies a powerful departure from passive
cultural retention. She actively constructs her identity,
drawing selectively from both her Indian heritage and
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her American experiences, emdiving a fluid and
dynamic self that defiantly defies fixed categories. This
aligns seamlessly with Iain Chambers' concept of
migrancy as a constant, mutable process of negotiation
and redefinition, where the points of departure and
arrival are never immutable [3].
Furthermore, Jasmine is a powerful "celebration of the
multiple identifications" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. Jasmine
learns to "perform" her identity, consciously deciding
"which identity to display and/or when to display both
simultaneously" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. She transforms
from a "shy Indian woman with ethnic prejudices and
pretensions" into someone who learns "how to behave
like an American in such a way that people tend to think
that she is born and brought up in America" [Prakash,
2025, p. 3]. This involves not just external changes, such
as her adoption of "a T-shirt, tight cords and running
shoes," but also a fundamental shift in her internal
psyche, embracing the "idea of America that privileges
freedom and individual identity over traditional taboos,
stigma and gender role in familial responsibility"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. Jasmine, therefore, represents
the immigrant phase where the individual is actively
engaged in "re-rooting and re-housing" themselves in
the new soil, gaining a "dual perspective" and the
"privilege of belonging to and taste diverse cultural
mores" [Prakash, 2025, p. 2-3]. Her journey
underscores the profound capacity for human agency
in shaping cultural identity in response to new
environments, moving beyond the constraints of a
singular, inherited past.
3.3. The Transnational Phase: Multiplicity and
Deterritorialized Belonging in Desirable Daughters
By the time of Desirable Daughters (2002) [7],
Mukherjee's portrayal of identity has matured to
explicitly embrace the complexities of multiplicity and
transnationalism, signifying the "transnational phase"
of diasporic experience. The novel features two Bengali
sisters, Tara and Padma, who, despite their shared
origin, emdiv strikingly different approaches to
cultural identity in their adult lives. Tara, who has
migrated to San Francisco, initially attempts to shed her
Indian past and fully embrace an American identity,
even changing her name. Padma, in contrast, maintains
strong ties to India, traditional practices, and even
remains in Calcutta for a significant portion of the
narrative. However, the novel's intricate plot, involving
a long-lost sister and a hidden past, ultimately reveals
the profound impossibility of a purely singular or
severed identity for either character. Their lives remain
inextricably intertwined with their Indian heritage,
even for Tara, through enduring family connections,
shared history, and the inescapable echoes of their
past.
Desirable Daughters powerfully demonstrates that
cultural identity is not a rigid choice between
"either/or" but rather a lived reality of "both/and." The
sisters' experiences exemplify Bhabha's "third space,"
where new cultural forms and identities emerge not
from a simple blend, but from the dynamic and often
tension-filled interaction of different traditions [1]. The
characters in Desirable Daughters fluidly navigate
multiple cultural spheres simultaneously, maintaining
vibrant
connections
across
vast
geographical
boundaries. Their identities are explicitly transnational,
characterized by a continuous movement between
different cultural registers, reflecting a lived experience
where the homeland remains a significant, though not
exclusive, point of reference. Tara's journey, for
instance, is described as moving "from the aloofness of
expatriation to the exuberance of immigration
[becoming] the milestone in the evolution of the
transnational identity" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. She
accepts the challenges of the host country, looking
"ahead for adjustment and survival" rather than being
"afflicted with the fragmented identity" [Prakash, 2025,
p. 3]. Her adoption of Western attire and lifestyle, and
her acceptance of divorce and her son's gay sexuality,
symbolize her embrace of a "free and liberal
atmosphere of America" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
This portrayal directly challenges earlier, more
simplistic views that assumed a complete severing of
ties with the country of origin upon migration. Instead,
Mukherjee presents a nuanced understanding where
individuals can be simultaneously rooted in multiple
places, creating complex transnational social fields. The
novel suggests that the "immigrant psyche becomes a
playground
of
cultural
assimilations,"
where
experiences in the alien land inscribe new socio-
cultural meanings that defy projection into any "single
cultural identity as authentic" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This
leads to the understanding that the "cultural identity of
a diaspora can only be conceived and understood as an
arbitrary construct" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. The concept
of "culture traces," drawing from Derridian philosophy,
becomes particularly relevant here: the cultural
identity of the Indian immigrant comprises "many
culture traces such as dominant host culture, residual
native culture, and the emergent transnational culture"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. These traces are "a mark here and
now of something else, of something not-here and not-
now," signifying that even when an immigrant claims
full assimilation, "native culture seems to flicker in
her/his indomitable will which surfaces in certain
moments and helps her/him to reconstruct a new
identity" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This new transnational
identity "challenges the age old assumption that
cultural encounters invariably establish hierarchical
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dominator / dominated relationship" [Prakash, 2025, p.
3].
3.4. The Rejection of Essentialism and the Emergence
of Hybrid Subjectivity
Across the entire spectrum of these works, from the
early struggles of The Tiger’s Daughter [5] to the
confident transnationalism of Desirable Daughters [7],
there is a consistent and emphatic rejection of
essentialist notions of "Indianness" or "American-
ness." Mukherjee's characters frequently find
themselves at odds with rigid cultural expectations,
whether these originate from within their own
diasporic communities (e.g., pressures to maintain
tradition) or from the dominant society (e.g.,
stereotypes or expectations of complete assimilation).
Their identities are consistently shown to be contested,
actively negotiated, and ultimately self-defined, rather
than being passively inherited or pre-determined by
birth, ethnicity, or tradition.
The "cross-cultural crisis" [8], initially presented as a
source of pain and fragmentation, is ultimately
reframed not as a pathological inability to belong, but
rather as a fertile ground for the emergence of new,
innovative identity formations. This literary evidence
provides robust support for the theoretical shift
towards understanding cultural identity as a dynamic,
constructed, and inherently hybrid phenomenon,
rather than a static essence to be merely preserved or
lost. The characters' journeys highlight that identity is
not a fixed destination or a singular state, but an
ongoing, fluid process of "becoming," continuously
shaped by individual agency, evolving circumstances,
and the complex interplay of multiple cultural "traces"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
This aligns with the theoretical models proposed by
scholars like Paul Gilroy, who champions "hybrid
subjectivity" and rejects the "allegory of 'roots'" in
favor of a diaspora "based on movements,
interconnections and varied indications" [Prakash,
2025, p. 1]. Mukherjee’
s characters emdiv this hybrid
subjectivity, demonstrating that cultural identity in the
diaspora is an "arbitrary construct" and an
"individualistic enterprise," where people "create their
own super structure and super culture, becoming in a
way their own 'cultural programmers'" [Prakash, 2025,
p. 3]. This profound shift in literary representation not
only mirrors but also actively contributes to the
broader academic paradigm shift, affirming that
identity in the Indian diaspora is characterized by
fluidity, multiplicity, and a continuous process of self-
creation in response to a transnational existence.
DISCUSSION
The literary trajectory observed across Bharati
Mukherjee's novels, from the initial cultural
fragmentation depicted in The Tiger’s Daughter [5
] to
the fluid, transnational identities confidently embraced
in Jasmine [6] and Desirable Daughters [7], provides
compelling and irrefutable evidence of a profound
paradigm shift in the understanding and representation
of cultural identity within the vast and diverse Indian
diaspora. This transformative shift moves decisively
beyond earlier, often reductionist, frameworks that
viewed diasporic identity as a simplistic binary of
complete assimilation versus rigid cultural retention.
Instead, it embraces a far more complex, dynamic, and
hybridized understanding that aligns closely with
contemporary postcolonial and cultural theories,
particularly those emphasizing the agency of the
migrant subject.
4.1. From Crisis to Construction: The Agentic Self in
Diaspora
Early scholarly and literary engagements with diaspora
frequently emphasized a pervasive "crisis" of identity,
often portraying migrants as perpetually caught
between two distinct cultures, leading to feelings of
alienation or a struggle for belonging [8]. Mukherjee's
The Tiger’s Daughter [5] initially reflects this sentiment,
vividly depicting Tara's profound sense of dislocation
and her inability to reconcile her past with her present.
However, the subsequent evolution of Mukherjee's
characters, most notably Jasmine's relentless and
proactive self-reinvention across various geographical
and social landscapes [6], marks a crucial and
transformative departure from this earlier narrative.
This shift highlights the undeniable emergence of an
"agentic self" within the diaspora
—
an individual who
actively constructs, negotiates, and performs their
identity rather than passively receiving it as a fixed
inheritance. Jasmine's journey is a testament to this
agency, as she consciously sheds old names and
identities to adapt and thrive in new environments,
demonstrating an ability to "murder her past only to
reincarnate as an entirely different and new self"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This aligns seamlessly with Iain
Chambers' emphasis on migrancy as a continuous
process of self-definition, where identity is not a static
state but a dynamic journey of "mutation" and transit
[3]. The paradigm shift, therefore, lies not only in
recognizing the multi-layered nature of diasporic
identity but, crucially, in acknowledging the migrant
not merely as a passive victim of cultural displacement
but as an active, creative architect of new forms of
belonging and selfhood. This agency transforms the
"cross-cultural crisis" from a debilitating condition into
a catalyst for profound personal and cultural evolution.
4.2. Hybridity and the "Third Space" as a Normative
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Condition
The increasing prominence and acceptance of hybrid
identities are central to this paradigm shift. No longer
viewed as an anomalous or merely transitional phase,
hybridity, as meticulously theorized by Homi K. Bhabha
in his concept of the "third space" [1], becomes a
normative and generative condition for many within
the diaspora. Mukherjee's later works, particularly
Desirable Daughters [7], powerfully demonstrate that
individuals can comfortably and authentically inhabit
multiple cultural spaces simultaneously. They draw
selectively and creatively from both their ancestral
heritage and their adopted environments to forge
unique identities that are neither purely one nor
entirely the other, but rather a rich synthesis.
This "third space" is not a void of cultural ambiguity but,
as Bhabha argues, a fertile ground for the emergence
of new cultural expressions, challenging the very notion
of fixed, essentialized cultures. The anxieties of the
past, often stemming from the perceived pressure to
choose one identity over another, are gradually
replaced by an acceptance, and even a celebration, of
multiplicity and fluidity. Elleke Boehmer's concept of
"migrant metaphors" further underscores how these
new, hybridized identities are constantly being
articulated, re-articulated, and performed through
language, narrative, and lived experience [2]. The
ability of characters like Tara in Desirable Daughters to
embrace a liberal American lifestyle while still being
inextricably linked to her Indian past exemplifies this
fluidity, demonstrating that the "immigrant psyche
becomes a playground of cultural assimilations"
[Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
4.3. Transnationalism and the Deterritorialized Nature
of Belonging
The paradigm shift also encompasses a profound move
towards transnationalism, where cultural identity is no
longer solely or rigidly tied to a specific geographical
location or nation-state. The Indian diaspora,
characterized by its robust familial, economic, and
cultural ties maintained across continents, serves as a
prime example of this deterritorialized sense of
belonging. Mukherjee's characters, even when
physically settled in their host countries, remain deeply
connected to their origins through memory, ongoing
family networks, cultural practices, and even the
"culture traces" of their past [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This
directly challenges the assimilationist imperative that
once dominated earlier diaspora studies, which often
assumed a linear and inevitable severing of ties with
the homeland.
Instead, the contemporary paradigm acknowledges
that diasporic individuals can be simultaneously rooted
in multiple places, creating complex and dynamic
transnational social fields. George Steiner's work on
"extraterritoriality" provides a theoretical precursor to
understanding identities that exist and thrive beyond
the confines of national borders [9]. This transnational
existence means that "home" itself becomes a floating
concept, linked more to emotional territory, feelings,
and sentiments than to a fixed physical place [Prakash,
2025, p. 2]. The notion of "cultural traces"
—
the
lingering marks of past and absent cultures within the
present identity
—
further illustrates how even when an
immigrant claims full assimilation, "native culture
seems to flicker in her/his indomitable will which
surfaces in certain moments and helps her/him to
reconstruct a new identity" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This
new transnational identity, therefore, fundamentally
"challenges the age old assumption that cultural
encounters invariably establish hierarchical dominator
/ dominated relationship" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3].
4.4. Implications for a Broader Understanding of
Identity
This paradigm shift has profound and far-reaching
implications for how we understand cultural identity
more broadly, extending beyond the specific context of
the Indian diaspora. It fundamentally suggests that
identity is not a static, immutable, or solely inherited
trait, but rather a dynamic, ongoing, and actively
constructed process of negotiation, adaptation, and
creative formation. For the Indian diaspora, this means
recognizing the immense internal diversity within the
community, where "Indianness" itself is not a
monolithic concept but is constantly reinterpreted, re-
negotiated, and performed in myriad ways across
various global contexts. It also powerfully highlights the
agency of individuals in shaping their own cultural
narratives, moving beyond external categorizations or
prescriptive definitions. The initial "cross-cultural
crisis" [8] is thus reframed not as a pathology or a
deficiency, but as a potent catalyst for profound
personal, cultural, and societal evolution.
Furthermore,
this
shift
underscores
the
epistemological difficulty of projecting any single
cultural identity as definitively "authentic." As the
provided text notes, in the absence of a dominant,
singular code, "culture is becoming an individualistic
enterprise, in which people create their own super
structure and super culture, becoming in a way their
own 'cultural programmers'" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. This
perspective encourages a more open, inclusive, and
nuanced appreciation of the complex tapestry of
human experience in an increasingly interconnected
and mobile world. It challenges essentialist views and
promotes an understanding of identity as fluid,
contested, and continuously evolving through
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interaction and self-definition.
4.5. Limitations of the Current Study and Future
Research Directions
While this study provides a robust literary argument for
the observed paradigm shift in the understanding of
Indian diasporic identity, it is important to
acknowledge its inherent limitations. The primary
reliance on fictional narratives means that the findings
reflect
artistic
interpretations
and
subjective
experiences as envisioned by the author, rather than
empirical sociological data. While literary works offer
profound insights, they are specific to the author's
vision and may not capture the full spectrum of
diversity within the vast and heterogeneous Indian
diaspora, which encompasses a multitude of socio-
economic strata, regional origins, religious affiliations,
and generational variations. The study's scope is
confined to the literary domain and does not include
new empirical sociological or anthropological research.
Building upon this conceptual and literary foundation,
future research could significantly expand and enrich
our understanding by pursuing several critical
directions:
•
Empirical Sociological Studies: Conducting
extensive empirical sociological studies, utilizing
diverse methodologies such as large-scale surveys, in-
depth interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic
research, with varied segments of the Indian diaspora
across different host countries. This would validate the
prevalence and nature of hybrid and transnational
identities beyond literary representation and provide
quantitative and qualitative data on lived experiences.
•
Broader Literary and Artistic Analysis:
Analyzing a wider range of literary and artistic
expressions from the Indian diaspora, including poetry,
short stories, plays, film, music, and visual arts. This
would explore different facets of identity negotiation
and
cultural
production,
offering
a
more
comprehensive artistic landscape of diasporic
experiences.
•
Comparative Diaspora Studies: Undertaking
comparative studies between the Indian diaspora's
experience and that of other large diasporic
communities globally (e.g., Chinese, African, Irish
diasporas). This would help identify universal patterns
in identity formation within diasporic contexts, as well
as unique characteristics specific to the Indian
experience, contributing to broader theories of
migration and identity.
•
Impact of Digital Technologies: Investigating
the transformative role of digital technologies, social
media, and online platforms in facilitating transnational
connections,
shaping
contemporary
diasporic
identities, and influencing cultural exchange between
homeland and host countries. This is particularly
relevant for the "new" diaspora.
•
Generational
Differences:
Exploring
generational differences in identity perception and
negotiation within Indian diasporic families. How do
first-generation migrants, who experienced the initial
"cross-cultural crisis," differ from second or third
generations who are born and raised in the host
country, yet still navigate their heritage?
•
Specific Regional Identities: Delving into the
nuances of specific regional Indian identities within the
diaspora (e.g., Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, South Indian
diasporas) to understand how sub-cultural affiliations
are maintained, transformed, or hybridized in different
global contexts.
•
Policy Implications: Examining the implications
of these evolving identity perceptions for multicultural
policies, integration strategies, and educational
curricula in host countries, as well as for homeland
engagement policies.
These future research avenues would provide a more
holistic and empirically grounded understanding of the
profound paradigm shift in cultural identity within the
Indian diaspora, moving beyond literary interpretations
to encompass the full breadth of lived experiences and
their societal implications.
CONCLUSION
The comprehensive study of the Indian diaspora,
particularly through the evolving literary lens of Bharati
Mukherjee's novels, unequivocally reveals a compelling
and profound paradigm shift in the perception and
lived experience of cultural identity. This shift
transcends rigid, outdated notions of cultural
preservation or complete assimilation, embracing
instead a dynamic and intricate interplay of hybridity,
transnationalism, and active identity construction.
Through the richly detailed narratives of Mukherjee's
characters
—
from Tara's initial expatriate dislocation in
The Tiger’s Daughter [5] to Jasmine's relentless
immigrant transformation in Jasmine [6], and finally to
the fluid, multi-layered transnationalism of Tara and
Padma in Desirable Daughters [7]
—
we observe
individuals who are not merely caught between worlds
but are actively and creatively forging new selves. They
emdiv the fluid, multifaceted, and often contested
nature of belonging in an increasingly globalized and
interconnected era. This profound shift acknowledges
the agentic role of individuals in shaping their own
cultural narratives, transforming the initial "cross-
cultural crisis" [8] from a debilitating experience into a
fertile ground for innovation, self-discovery, and the
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creation of new cultural forms.
This reconceptualization of identity has far-reaching
and significant implications, fundamentally challenging
essentialist views that once sought to define cultures as
fixed or monolithic. It highlights the immense internal
diversity within diasporic communities, underscoring
that "Indianness" itself is not a singular, unchanging
entity but is continuously reinterpreted, re-negotiated,
and performed in myriad ways across various global
contexts. The study emphasizes that cultural identity is
an ongoing process of "becoming," shaped by
continuous negotiation between ancestral heritage
and contemporary experience, and by the interplay of
multiple "culture traces" [Prakash, 2025, p. 3]. As global
migration continues to redefine demographic
landscapes
and
reshape
societies
worldwide,
understanding these evolving perceptions and lived
realities of cultural identity within communities like the
Indian diaspora becomes increasingly crucial. Such an
understanding is vital for fostering more inclusive
societies, developing effective multicultural policies,
and appreciating the complex, vibrant, and
continuously evolving tapestry of human experience in
a truly globalized world. The role attributed by modern
diasporic writers to the migrant community in actively
"remolding" the host nation [Prakash, 2025, p. 1] is a
testament to the transformative power of these
evolving identities, signaling a future where cultural
encounters foster mutual enrichment rather than
hierarchical dominance.
REFERENCES
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge,
1994.
Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial and Postcolonial Literature:
Migrant Metaphors. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press,
2005.
Chambers, Iain. Migrancy, Culture, Identity. London:
Routledge, 1994.
Mandal, Somdatta. Bharati Mukherjee: A Critical
Perspective. Pencraft Books, 2010.
Mukherjee, Bharati. The Tiger’s Daughter. Chatto &
Windus, 1973.
---. Jasmine. Grove Weidenfeld, 1989.
---. Desirable Daughters. Harper, 2002.
Shinde, Shoba. “Cross
-Cultural Crisis in Bharati
Mukherjee’s Jasmine and The Tiger’s Daughter”,
Commonwealth Writing: A Study in Expatriate
Experience, edited by R.K. Dhawan and L.S.R.
Krishnasastry, Prestige, 1994, pp.58.
Steiner, George. Extraterritorial: Papers on Literature
and the Language Revolution. Faber and Faber, 1972.
