BACTRIAN DOCUMENTS FOUND IN NORTHERN
AFGHANISTAN AS A HISTORICAL SOURCE
Dr. Maronbek Rajapov
Deputy Dean of the International Faculty, EMU University,
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Historical Sciences,
E-mail: mardonbekoff@gmail.com
DO
İ
: 10.29329/akalid.2025.1346.5
Received Date : 1 August 2025
Acceptance Date : 19 August 2025
Completion Date : 21 August 2025
Publication Date : 30 August 2025
Pages : 65-80
Maronbek Rajapov
, “
Bactrian Documents Found in Northern Afghanis-
tan as A Hi
storıcal Source”,
Academic Literature The Journal of Social Sciences
Researches
, Volume: 3, Number: 1, Published in August 2025, p. 65-80.
Abstract
his article analyzes the role and significance of the Bactrian documents found in Northern
Af-ghanistan as a historical source for the study of the history of Turan in the early medieval
peri-od. The article also examines the history of the discovery and study of these documents.
From a critical point of view, it analyzes the erroneous approach in national historiography, which
con-sists in the incorrect generalization of these documents under the name Rabatake Archive and
their attribution exclusively to the Kushan period. Furthermore, based on an analysis of the external
(duplicate copies, seals) and internal (introduction, main part, conclusion) structure of the doc-
uments, the article substantiates the existence of a developed legal system in the region. Through
the analysis of information contained in the documents regarding purchase and sale, debt obliga-
tions, rent, taxes, slavery, and family relations, the socio-economic picture of Turan in the 4th
–
8th
centuries is illuminated. The significant scholarly novelty of the article lies in the fact that, based
on an analysis of Turkic titles (kagan, yabgu, tarkhan, tudun) and ethnonyms (Abdalo) found in the
documents, the role and influence of the Turkic peoples in the statehood of Turan during the early
medieval era are proven with direct evidence.
Keywords
: Bactrian documents, Rabatak Archive, Qutlugh Tabaghligh Bilge Chavush, Abdals,
Abdal tax, Turkic tax, Arab tax.
T
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Maronbek Rajapov
, “Tarihî Bir Kaynak Olarak Kuzey Afganistan’da Bu-
lunan Baktriyen Belgeleri
”,
Akademik Literatür Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları
Dergisi (AKALİD)
, Cilt: 3, Sayı: 1, Ağustos
2025, s. 65-80.
Tarihî Bir Kaynak Olarak Kuzey Afganistan’da Bu-
lunan Baktriyen Belgeleri
Öz
Bu makale, Kuzey Afganistan’da bulunan Baktriyen belgelerinin, erken Orta Çağ döneminde Turan
tarihinin incelenmesi için tarihî bir kaynak olarak rolünü ve önemini analiz etmektedir. Makale ay-
rıca bu belgelerin keşif ve araştırma tarihini de ele almaktadır. Eleştirel bir bakış açısıyla, ulusal tarih
yazımında görülen hatalı yaklaşımlardan biri bu belgelerin yanlış biçimde
Rabatake Arşivi
adı altında
genelleştirilmesi ve yalnızca Kuşan dönemine atfedilmesi olarak analiz edilmektedir.
Bununla bir-
likte bu makalede
belgelerin dış (
mükerrer kopyalar, mühürler
) ve iç (
giriş, ana bölüm, sonuç
) yapısına
dayalı bir inceleme yoluyla, bölgede gelişmiş bir hukuk sisteminin varlığı ortaya konulmaktadır.
Ay-
rıca satış, borç yükümlülükleri, kira, vergiler, kölelik ve aile ilişkilerine dair belgelerde yer alan bilgi-
lerin analizi aracılığıyla, 4.
-
8. Yüzyıllar
arasında
Turan’ın sosyo
-
ekonomik tablosu aydınlatılmakta-
dır.
Makalenin önemli bilimsel yeniliği, belgelerde geçen Türk unvanları (
kağan, yabgu, tarhan, tudun
)
ve etnonimlerin (
Abdalo
) analizine dayanarak
erken Orta Çağ’da Türk halklarının Turan devlet ya-
pısındaki rolü ve etkisinin doğrudan kanıtlarla ortaya konulmuş olmasıdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler
:
Baktriyen belgeleri, Rabatak Arşivi, Kutluğ Tabahlığ Bilge Çavuş, Abdallar,
Abdal vergisi, Türk vergisi, Arap vergisi
Introduction
The early medieval period underwent significant historical transformations in the
history of Uzbek statehood. During this era, the land of Turan was successively ruled
by the Chionites, Kidarites, Abdals (Hephthalites), and the Turkic Khaganate. In
national and foreign historiography, the history of these dynasties is primarily studied
through sources in Chinese, Armenian, Syriac, Pahlavi, Indian, as well as Arabic and
Persian, in conjunction with archaeological artifacts that have been and continue to
be discovered in the region.
It must be emphasized that the historical sources of this period are of particular
importance for studying the political and socio-economic processes of the past, and
they play a crucial role in reconstructing historical truth. Although they contain a
large volume of information, they are not always presented from an impartial and
objective viewpoint. Furthermore, this group of sources contains extremely scarce
information directly related to the daily lives of ordinary people, as they are often
dedicated to political history. For this reason, an objective and complete assessment
of historical processes can only be achieved through a comparative analysis of these
sources with contemporary documents.
1. Methodology
This study employs a source-critical and comparative historiographical approach in
order to analyze the Bactrian documents discovered in Northern Afghanistan and to
assess their role in reconstructing the socio-economic and legal history of Early
Medieval Turan. The methodology is based on the following principles:
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S a y f a D r . M a r o n b e k R A J A P O V
▪
Source Criticism:
The primary div of evidence consists of Bactrian documents from
the 4th
–
8th centuries, preserved on leather, cloth, and wooden tablets. Their external
(script, seals, duplicate forms) and internal (structure, terminology, witnesses, dates)
features were analyzed in detail. Particular attention was given to evaluating the
authenticity of the documents and identifying their functional purpose within the
legal-administrative system.
▪
Comparative Analysis:
The information from the Bactrian documents is systematically
compared with contemporary sources in Chinese, Armenian, Syriac, Pahlavi, Arabic,
and Persian languages, as well as with archaeological materials. This comparative
method allows the reconstruction of a more objective historical narrative and helps
to contextualize the documents within broader Central Asian history.
▪
Historiographical Evaluation:
The study critically examines the positions of major
scholars such as Nicholas Sims-
Williams, François de Blois, Khodadad Rezakhani,
Hossein Sheikh Bostanabad, and Said Reza Huseini. Their differing interpretations
of chronology, legal terminology, and socio-economic relations are compared in
order to highlight historiographical debates and to situate the author’s own
contribution.
▪
Socio-Economic and Legal Analysis:
The methodology emphasizes the functional
analysis of the documents as legal acts regulating property, tax, debt, and slavery. By
identifying recurrent legal formulas, administrative titles, and contractual
mechanisms, the study reconstructs the socio-economic structures of Early Medieval
Turan.
▪
Terminological and Philological Approach:
Special focus is placed on Turkic-derived
names and titles (such as khagan, yabghu, tarkhan, tudun), which provide direct
evidence of Turkic influence in the region. Their usage is analyzed not only
linguistically but also in terms of political and social implications.
2. Limitations:
Since the provenance of many Bactrian documents remains
uncertain and they were acquired through the antiquities market, the study refrains
from treating them as a single “Rabatak Archive.” Instead, they are analyzed as
independent yet related legal and administrative records.
By combining these methodological approaches, the article seeks to present a
balanced, evidence-based, and critically contextualized interpretation of the Bactrian
documents as a unique historical source.
3. The Bactrian Script
The administrative scripts used in the region from the period of Achaemenid
dependence to the Arab invasion can be chronologically divided into three stages.
These are: 1) Aramaic; 2) Greek; 3) Bactrian. The Aramaic script was in use until
Alexander the Great of Macedon defeated the Achaemenid king Darius III (336-330
BCE) and conquered his territories. Nevertheless, the Aramaic script was retained as
an official script in the Bactrian territories even during the time of Alexander the
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Great. Over time, it was replaced by the Greek script, which continued until the rise
of the Kushan Empire. On the coins of Kanishka, for the first time, inscriptions in
the Bactrian language began to appear in place of Greek inscriptions
. This implies
that Kanishka set aside the Greek script and made the local Bactrian script the official
one. Whereas the Greek alphabet had been used for state administration in the
Kushan kingdom before him, a reform took place during Kanishka's reign, and the
Greek alphabet was adapted for the Bactrian language. The Bactrian script, adapted
from the Greek alphabet, served as the administrative script until the Arab invasion.
Two types of the Bactrian script are known to science
–
monumental and cursive.
The monumental type is characterized by the letters not being connected to each
other and being written in a rounded form, which makes reading the words relatively
easier. In the cursive style, however, the letters are joined to one another, which
makes reading it difficult
. Archaeological research on discovered coins indicates that
the monumental style was characteristic of the Kushan period, and the transition to
the cursive style belongs entirely to the era of the Abdals (Hephthalites).
3.1. The Discovery of Documents in the Bactrian Script
In the first half of the 20th century, the study of the Bactrian script was limited only
to inscriptions on coins and seals. During this period, due to the lack of comparative
material for the surviving Bactrian script on coins and seals, it remained impossible
to scientifically investigate the evolution of the script. However, in 1957, French
archaeologists succeeded in finding a Bactrian inscription at Surkh Kotal near
Baghlan, Afghanistan
. The text, consisting of 25 lines, was carved onto a stone slab.
It was studied by scholars such as A. Maricq, W.B. Henning, and H. Humbach
Specifically, while A. Maricq identified the name of the Kushan ruler Kanishka and
some important words and phrases, W.B. Henning clarified that the inscription was
about the construction of a well dug in the thirty-first year of the Kanishka era, i.e.,
at the beginning of the reign of his successor Huvishka (early 2nd century CE). It
should be noted that until 1993, that is, until the discovery of the Rabatak stone
inscription, the "Great Surkh Kotal" inscription served as the most important source
for studying the Bactrian language for nearly 40 years. Although several other
Bactrian script samples were found during this interval, they did not significantly
contribute to the existing div of knowledge.
In 1993, a stone inscription was found by Afghan mujahideen while digging a trench
in the village of Rabatak in the Baghlan province of Afghanistan. This stone pillar
was photographed by staff from "The HALO Trust" (The Hazardous Area Life-
1
Mirsodiq Is’hoqov,
Arxivshunoslik
, Toshkent, 2020, p. 50.
2
Mirsodiq Is’hoqov,
Arxivshunoslik
, Toshkent, 2020, p. 52.
3
Nicolas Sims-
Williams, “On Kings and Nomads: New Documents in Ancient Bactrian Reveal
Afghanistan’s Past”,
The International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS)
, Volume: 27, 2002, p. 13-14.
4
Mirsodiq Is’hoqov,
Arxivshunoslik,
Toshkent, 2020, p. 52-53.
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S a y f a D r . M a r o n b e k R A J A P O V
support Organisation) and sent to the British Museum
. J. Cribb identified its
significance as an official document that mentioned the names of four Kushan kings.
Subsequently, J. Cribb shared this photograph with Nicholas Sims-Williams, a staff
member at the "School of Oriental and African Studies" (SOAS). In 1995
–
1996, the
Bactrian inscription based on the Greek alphabet was published by the scholars. It
describes the ancestors of Kanishka as well as some events from the first year of his
reign
By the year 2000, more than 150 Bactrian documents were known to science. The
majority of these documents were illegally transported to Pakistan during the years
of turmoil that began after the Soviet state sent troops into Afghanistan in 1979.
They then began to be sold in the Peshawar market. Subsequently, they were
purchased by various collectors and began to be auctioned and sold on the
international art market. Today, the majority of the documents are held in the
collection of Dr. Nasser David Khalili in London
Today, in Uzbek historiography, these Bactrian documents have been incorrectly
generalized under the name "documents of the Rabatak archive"
. This is because
none of these documents has a confirmed provenance, and it is unknown whether
they belong to a single archive or to several archives. From their content, it is
apparent that the Bactrian documents were written between the 4th and 8th
centuries. In our opinion, the documents were hidden and preserved under very
favorable conditions for centuries. For this reason, they have reached the present day
in good condition.
3.2. The Study of the Bactrian Documents
The div of scholarly literature dedicated to the study of the Bactrian documents,
though relatively young, already possesses its own foundational research. The basis
and starting point for nearly all investigations in this field is the three-volume work
by Professor Nicholas Sims-Williams of the University of London, titled Bactrian
Documents from Northern Afghanistan. The first volume of the work, published in
2001, contains legal and economic documents transcribed and translated into
English
. The second volume was published in 2007. It analyzes and interprets letters
and Buddhist texts
. In 2012, the third volume of the collection was published.
Along with presenting images of the documents, it includes a catalog containing
5
Nicolas Sims-
Williams, “On Kings and Nomads: New Documents in Ancient Bactrian Reveal
Afghanistan’s Past”,
The International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS)
, Volume: 27, 2002, p. 13.
6
Nicolas Sims-
Williams, “On Kings and Nomads: New Documents in Ancient Bactrian Reveal
Afghanistan’s Past”,
The International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS)
, Volume: 27, 2002, p. 14.
7
Afganistan'ın Kuzeyinden Baktriyen Belgeler:
https://www.khalilicollections.org/portfolio/
bactrian-documents-from-northern-afghanistan/
8
Mirsodiq Is’hoqov,
Arxivshunoslik
, Toshkent, 2020, p. 57-58.
9
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and Economic
Documents, Oxford, 2001.
10
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan II: Letters and
Buddhist Texts, London, 2007.
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information about their collection location, date (for manuscripts with specified
dates), format, and number of lines, as well as its publications (including relevant
articles)
The Bactrian documents are written on leather, cloth, and wooden tablets. Professor
Nicholas Sims-Williams has divided them into 4 categories. These are: 1. Legal
documents; 2. Analogous documents with uncertain dates; 3. Lists and accounts; 4.
Inscriptions on wood. The Bactrian documents mainly consist of deeds of sale and
purchase, land inheritance documents, tax payments, deeds of slave trade and
receipts, expense reports, and a marriage contract preserved as a single example. The
legal documents included in the first volume are designated conditionally in
chronological order based on the letters of the English alphabet from "A" to "Y".
Two documents written in the same year are arranged in the order of "A" and "Aa".
The documents are dated from the year 110 to the year 549
These publications include the texts of the Bactrian documents, their translations,
detailed philological and grammatical analyses, and a comprehensive glossary and
indices. The work of Professor Sims-Williams has been crucial not only for
introducing the documents into scholarly circulation but also for determining the
place of the Bactrian language and identifying its historical stages of development.
The next major study belongs to the Iranian scholar Hossein Sheikh Bostanabad,
who in 2017 defended his doctoral dissertation titled "Studies of Bactrian Legal
Documents" at the University of Göttingen. His research is primarily dedicated to
Bactrian legal documents, studying their formulas, terminology, and historical
context. He also demonstrated the degree of connection of Bactrian legal traditions
with other legal systems of the ancient Near East and its stages of evolution
Aside from the major works mentioned above, the study of Bactrian documents
mainly consists of small-scale articles and theses. In them, issues of administration,
law, and socio-economics are prominent. For instance, the article by the Iranian
scholar Khodadad Rezakhani titled "Balkh and the Sasanians: The Bactrian
Documents from Northern Afghanistan as a Source for Sasanian Economic and
Social History" covers the legal system and contract practices in the region,
governorships and their role in state administration, trade routes between Bactria and
Sughd during the Hephthalite period, economic agreements, tax collection practices,
and other important issues. The author emphasizes the unique importance of the
Bactrian documents for studying the daily life and economy of the Turan region and,
11
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan III: Plates, London,
2012.
12
N. Sims-
Williams, François de Blois, Studies in the chronology of the Bactrian documents from
Northern Afghanistan, Wien, 2018, p. 15 - 16.
13
Hossein Sheikh Bostanabad, Studies of Bactrian Legal Documents, Doktora Tezi, Gottingen,
2017.
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without denying Bactria's connection with the Sasanian world, has sought to show
its independent significance and its role in the historical processes of Turan
Another Iranian scholar, Said Reza Huseini, in his article titled "Slavery Represented
in Bactrian Documents", provides a detailed analysis of two main documents related
to slavery
–
a manumission charter for a slave buying his own freedom (dated 470)
and a contract for the sale of a child into slavery during a famine (dated 669). He
analyzed the legal terms, conditions, and social issues related to slavery in the
documents. The author demonstrated, based on the documents, that slavery was an
officially recognized and legalized practice in the Bactrian legal system, and that
documents related to slavery were drawn up in courts, witnessed, and sealed by
officials
The contributions of the renowned English numismatist Joe Cribb in this area must
also be specifically noted. In collaboration with Nicholas Sims-Williams, he studied
and published the Rabatak stone inscription. His research has been of great
importance in clarifying the Bactrian Era
. The works of the renowned French
Iranologist and Islamic scholar François de Blois have also paid special attention to
the dating of the documents. His monograph, co-authored with Nicholas Sims-
Williams, titled "Studies in the chronology of the Bactrian documents from Northern
Afghanistan", is dedicated to the complex issues of dating the Bactrian documents,
in which the problems of the Bactrian calendar and the "Bactrian Era" are deeply
analyzed
Despite the time that has passed since the discovery and study of the documents, no
bold step has been felt in national historiography to introduce the documents into
use. The reason for this may be, firstly, the inclusion of all Bactrian documents into
the "Rabatak archive," and secondly, the incorrect approach of dating the documents
and linking their information only with the Kushan period. In our opinion, it is
precisely these factors that have kept them from serving as an important source for
studying the history of the early medieval period in national historiography.
In general, the discovery of the Bactrian documents and their introduction into
scholarly circulation have brought about a radical turn in the study of the history,
language, culture, and socio-economic and legal life of Turan, and particularly
Bactria. Although research in this field is relatively young from a historiographical
point of view, significant achievements have been made in a short time.
14
Khodadad Rezakhani, The Bactrian Collection: An Important Source for Sasanian Economic
History,
e-Sasanika
. Volume:13, 2008, p. 1 - 14.
15
Said Reza Huseini, Slavery Represented in Bactrian Documents,
Slavery & Abolition
. Volume:
44, 2023, p. 682 - 696.
16
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Joe Cribb, A New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the Great,
Silk Road
Art and Archaeology
, Volume:4, 1995, p.75-142.
17
Nicolas Sims-
Williams, François de Blois, Studies in the chronology of the Bactrian documents
from Northern Afghanistan, Wien, 2018.
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In recent years, the scope of Bactrian studies has expanded, and as a result of the
research by scholars such as Hossein Sheikh Bostanabad, Khodadad Rezakhani, and
Said Reza Huseini, the legal, socio-economic, political, and daily life aspects of the
docum
ents are being studied more deeply. The work of Joe Cribb and François de
Blois is serving to clarify problems of numismatics and the dating of the Bactrian
documents.
These studies show that the Bactrian documents not only reveal the region's
connection with the political structures of the Kushan Empire but also its unique
internal development and that it possessed an independent economic and legal
system. They provide an opportunity to re-evaluate the role and importance of the
land of Turan at the crossroads of ancient civilizations. At the same time, many issues
reflected in the documents, such as local governance systems, religious beliefs, ethnic
relations, and various aspects of cultural life, are in need of new research.
3.3. The Issue of Dating the Documents
The dating of the Bactrian documents and their study on this basis is one of the most
important and controversial aspects of researching these documents. Work on this
issue has mainly been carried out by a number of researchers involved in translating
the documents, and new ideas have been put forward by them
. However, due to
the lack of a clear understanding of the chronology of political events in the region,
the dated period of the documents remains uncertain. In short, the dated legal and
contract documents, as well as letters, are spread between the years 110 and 549 of
an unknown era and are often precisely dated with the month and day. These dates
are based on the Bactrian calendar, and determining it and converting it to the
Common Era presents a particular complexity.
Initially, Sims-Williams associated the beginning of this era with the year 233 CE,
calling it the "Kushan-Sasanian era". This is explained by the collapse of the Kushan
Empire at the hands of the Sasanians. Later, the scholar changed his views on this
matter and put forward the concept of a "Sasanian era" based on the establishment
of the Sasanian Empire by Ardashir I in 223/224 CE
. However, Khodadad
Rezakhani points out that there are serious shortcomings in these dating models. In
his opinion, the first reason is that there is no reliable evidence that the Sasanians
themselves used such a single imperial era. Secondly, even if we accept the
assumption that Shapur I completely conquered the region in 248 CE, it remains
unclear why exactly 223 CE should be taken as the starting point
18
Nicolas Sims-
Williams; François de Blois,The Bactrian calendar: New material and new
suggestions, Languages of Iran: Past and Present.
Iranian studies in memoriam David Neil MacKenzie
,
ed. D. Weber. Wiesbaden, 2006, p. 185
–
196.
19
Nicolas Sims-
Williams; François de Blois, Studies in the chronology of the Bactrian documents
from Northern Afghanistan, Wien, 2018, p.27-29.
20
Khodadad Rezakhani, Balkh and the Sasanians, the Economy and Society of Northern
Afghanistan as Reflected in the Bactrian Economic Documents,
Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies.
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Furthermore, Khodadad Rezakhani, based on a comparative analysis of numismatic
data with the historical information mentioned in the documents, has cited problems
in applying the dating model used by Sims-Williams. He notes that Sasanian silver
coins in Afghanistan became widespread mainly after the reign of Shapur II (309
–
379 CE). However, the first mention of silver coins in the documents appears in
document "N" (dated 407 in the Bactrian era). According to the proposed Sasanian
era, this corresponds to 630 CE (407 BE + 223 CE = 630 CE). In addition, the silver
coins of Kavād mentioned in document "Q" (dated 449 in the Bactrian era), if the
Sasanian era is applied, correspond to a period almost 150 years after the death of
Kavād (488–
529 CE), i.e., 672 CE (449 BE + 223 CE = 672 CE). These
inconsistencies indicate that there are serious flaws in the matter of dating.
Khodadad Rezakhani, having analyzed the contradictory information above, noted
that it necessitates the search for an earlier starting point for dating the Bactrian
documents. As a reason for this, he cited that Sasanian influence entered the Bactrian
territories later, which makes the application of a "Sasanian era" for all the documents
completely unfounded. In Khodadad Rezakhani's opinion, if the Bactrian documents
are logically calculated from the Kanishka era (from 127 CE), it would correspond
to the chronology of Sasanian silver coins in the Bactrian region, particularly the
coins minted by Kavād.
Regarding the issue of dating the documents, the following conclusion can be
reached. Using the Kanishka era or the reign of Ardashir I for all documents is
completely baseless. Based on the details of the historical events in the documents,
it can be classified into 5 periods: 1) Kushan-Sasanian (245
–
370 CE), 2) Chionite-
Kidarite (370
–
466 CE), 3) Hephthalite (466
–
559 CE), 4) Turkic Khaganate (559
–
710
CE), 5) Arab Caliphate (710
–
770 CE). In the first period, the Kushan calendar was
used, but as a result of the increasing Sasanian influence in the Bactrian region, the
use of the Sasanian calendar was adopted. For example, in document "Ii" dated to
the year 260 (260 BE + 223/224 CE = 483/484 CE), a statement made by Ohrmazd
to a person named Yamsh mentions that Zinduk from the population of Malr paid
taxes in gold and sheep to the Hephthalites, and that he had nothing else for
payment
. Also, as mentioned in the document, taxes were now set not by the
Sasanians, but by the Hephthalites. This situation confirms the death of the Sasanian
Peroz recorded in sources for the year 484 and the transfer of a part of the territories
to the political control of the Hephthalites.
One can agree with the opinion of the Iranian scholar Khodadad Rezakhani. The
reason for this is, firstly, that Iranian influence in the Bactrian region was felt from
Shapur II (309
–
379 CE) onwards, and secondly, the Hephthalites and the Turkic
Khaganate inherited the basis of state administration from the Kushans. Therefore,
6th European Conference of Iranian Studies, held in Vienna, 18
–
22 September 2007
, Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz, 2010, p. 6 - 8.
21
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 52.
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along with the traditions of state administration, the Kushan calendar was widely
used in this region.
4. The External Structure of the Documents
From a source studies perspective, information
such as the type of paper, size, script, language,
and seal used in the Bactrian documents clearly
demonstrates the reasons for the documents'
creation, when and where they were written, and,
at the same time, the status of the documents.
The Bactrian documents consist of single and
double-copy documents. A simple document
consists of one copy and was written only once.
For example, documents "O", "R", "S", "Ss",
"Tt", "Uu", and "Uv" consist of only one copy
Most of the Bactrian documents were in two
copies. They consist of two nearly identical texts of a contract. One copy was written
on the upper part and sealed with the fingerprints of the witnesses involved in a
particular matter, as well as the plaintiff and the executants.
The second copy was written on the same sheet, with a blank space left between
them, and its lower copy was left open for reading. This was confirmed with up to
six clay seals bearing the seals or nail marks of the contracting parties and witnesses.
Their names are sometimes written on the back of the document next to the holes
for the seal strings. Presumably, the closed
copy was used to open the sealed version in
the presence of a judge when disputes arose.
(Figure 1)
In the process of forming the document,
the inner text was written first, then a
horizontal cut was made in the central part
of the document. It was rolled and folded,
with the text and the upper part sealed
inside. (Figure 2)
5. The Internal Structure of the
Documents
According to their internal structure, the
documents consist of an introduction, a
main part, and a concluding part.
The
introductory part of almost all Bactrian
22
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 22.
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S a y f a D r . M a r o n b e k R A J A P O V
documents includes the date, the place where the document was drawn up, and a list
of the document's executants and witnesses. The dates come in the order of year,
then month, and day. The date begins with the word “χ
ϸ
ονο” or “αχ
ϸ
ονο” (year)
and mostly ends with the word “καλδο” (when). The names of the days in the
documents are taken from the Zoroastrian calendar
For example: χ
ϸ
ονο σ′ μ′ ζ′
μαυο σπανδαρομιδο ρωσο (
It was the 247th year, the month of Spandarmid, the day of
Ohrmazd
).
In the documents, the location is clearly indicated after the date, month, and day.
The location begins with the word “μαλο” (here).
For example: χ
ϸ
ονο υ′ ζ′ μαυο
χανδιγο ρωσο α
ϸ
ταδο καλδο ναβιχτο μολρα γο πιτανο βωστιγο μαλαβο σαμιγγανο
ωδαγο αβο σανδαρανο αβο ρωβοχαραγγο αλβαρο.
(
It was the 407th year, the month of
Khandig, the day of Ashtad, when this sealed document, this contract of guarantee, was written here,
in the district of Samingan, at Sandaran, at the court of Rob-khar
).
In the introductory part, after the date and location, the executants and witnesses are
listed. All agreements were made in the presence of witnesses. The presence of
witnesses was considered one of the factors determining the authenticity and legality
of
the agreement. Usually, the word “οιγαλφο” was used before the names of
witnesses in the documents, which in the Bactrian language meant “to see”, “to
observe”
For example: αβο καδαγοβιδο αλβαρο αζδηβιδοζαροοηρο οιβριιανο (At
the court of the governor, with the cognizance of Zar-wer Vibryan.)
The main part begins with an introductory section that states the facts of the
agreement. It reveals the purpose and essence of the agreement. Since the Bactrian
documents are mainly focused on facts, the phrases in the introductory part are very
similar in most documents. The length and content of the main part of the
documents were determined by the nature of the agreement. For example, a contract
of sale (of land, slaves, etc.) would include clauses on mutual agreement, the reason
for the sale, a description of the property, and payment of the specified amount of
money, while settlement agreements contain a guarantee section after the reason
clause. Other contracts, including gift, loan, and lease documents, include some of
the clauses listed above.
The concluding part consists of the confirmation of the agreement, in which the
executant of the agreement states that they wrote the document, sealed it, and
delivered the final judgment on the matter to the parties. The phrase “Καλδο
πιδοοιησαδο… μανο”, meaning “The contract was written (sealed) by me…,” was
used
23
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 31.
24
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 39.
25
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 58.
“
B a c t r i a n D o c u m e n t s F o u n d . . .
”
S a y f a
|
76
For example, in document "M" from the year 388 of the Bactrian era (612 CE), a
person named Moyan lent 3 silver coins bearing the name of Kavād to Mus. Mus
and Moyan made a mutual agreement in court for Mus to repay the debt. The
concluding part of the agreement contains a guarantee section where the executant,
Nane-band, assumes responsibility. The guarantee is stated as follows: "...If Moyan
(the original lender) disputes with Mus or his family in the future about the
repayment of the debt, Nane-band will take responsibility. He will pay him double...".
This shows that Nane-band undertook the obligation to compensate Mus's loss
twofold in a dispute with Moyan. This indicates that Bactrian law had a mechanism
of serious penalties to ensure the fulfillment of contractual obligations and to protect
the parties. Such guarantee clauses increased the strength of the agreement and were
aimed at preventing future disputes.
Overall, the Bactrian documents, with their complex external and internal structure,
testify to the profound development of the legal system of that period. The single
and double-copy forms of the documents, their dating, location, the presence of
witnesses, and clearly defined penalty and guarantee clauses show that great
importance was attached to contractual relations in the society of that time. In
particular, the existence of double-copy documents and their role in resolving
disputes, as well as the guarantee clause, confirm the existence of advanced
mechanisms aimed at ensuring the legal protection of the parties.
6. Socio-economic Issues in the Bactrian Documents
Almost all of the Bactrian documents (except for letters and Buddhist texts) are
considered legal documents, and according to their internal substance, they can be
studied by dividing them into economic-legal issues and social-legal issues.
Economic-legal documents mainly consist of the sale and purchase of property, land
leases, gifting of property, borrowing and lending, payment of taxes and other social
payments, and letters of surety. Social-legal issues include marriage contracts,
agreements on resolving various disputes, and issues related to slavery. These
documents testify to the existence of a developed legal system that regulated property
and personal relations in the society of the region.
The Bactrian documents record two categories of slaves
–
1) a slave born in the
possession of the owner (χοβο νιζαδαγο μαρηγο); 2) a slave bought for money
(δδραχμο χιρσιγο)
. This classification has been further analyzed by Said Reza
Huseini, while Arabic sources, such as Narshakhi’s History of Bukhara, confirm the
persistence of slavery in Central Asia into the 9th century
. In both cases, slaves
were regarded as personal property, and their owners had full authority over them.
Owners could keep, sell, pledge, gift, lease, detain for bad behavior, or free their
slaves in exchange for service.
26
Said Reza Huseini, Slavery Represented in Bactrian Documents,
Slavery & Abolition
. Volume:
44, 2023, p. 687.
27
Narshakhī,
Ta’rikh
-i Bukhara
, trans. R. Frye, Cambridge, 1954, p.38-40.
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S a y f a D r . M a r o n b e k R A J A P O V
The documents show how people could become slaves: being born a slave or being
born free and later sold into slavery (for example, by family members during difficult
times such as famine). A slave could buy his freedom by paying his full price. In this
case, he was given an official document confirming his freedom.
Terms such as “māreg” (μαρηγο), “bandag” (βανδαγο), “banz” (βανζο –
female
slave), and “marshkond” (μαρσκονδο) were used to denote slaves. The terms
“māreg” and “bandag” also appear in personal names along with the names of gods
(e.g., Bag-
māreg –
slave of God) and in such cases, they indicated religious devotion
rather than legal status. Also, lower-
ranking officials used the term “māreg” as a sign
of obedience when addressing higher-
ranking officials. The word “āzād” (αζαδο) was
used to denote free-born people.
7. The Use of Turkic Words in the Bactrian Documents
In Uzbek historiography, the socio-economic, political, and cultural life of early
medieval Turan is primarily illuminated by using written sources in various languages
and material evidence obtained through archaeological research, describing
important historical events through their mutual comparison. As is known, every
state or people, based on the laws of its own language, has named other peoples or
states, their cities and rivers, and the titles and positions in their state administration.
For example,
the Hephthalites are referred to as "Hep’t’al," "Xetal," "Tetal" in
Armenian sources; "Ephthal," "White Huns" in Byzantine sources; "Ēftāl" and
"Hēftāl" in Pahlavi (Middle Persian) sources; "Eptalit" in Syriac sources; and "Ye
-
da," "Ye-dian," "Idan" in Chinese sources. However, it is known from their own coin
inscriptions and the Bactrian documents that they called themselves Abadalo
“ηβοδαλο ββγο”. From this point of view, research should refer to them not by the
names given to them by various peoples in their own languages, but by how they
referred to themselves in their own language and script.
In several of the Bactrian documents, Turkic names, titles, and positions are
mentioned. For example, in Documents "I", "Ii", and "al", the “ηβ οδαλαγγο τωγο”
(Abadalo tax) is mentioned. In it, Zanduk and Ram-gul state that they were forced
to pay gold and sheep for the Hephthalite tax and that they have no other property.
Document "J" also mentions the “ηβ οδαλαγγο τωγο” (Abadalo tax), and it details
the events of two citizens of the Malr population selling a house because they could
not pay the Hephthalite tax
. This corresponds to Chinese chronicles, which record
that the Hephthalites (Ye-da, Ye-dian) levied heavy taxes on subject peoples
In Documents "N", "P", and "Q", “ιενηλο ταρχανο” (Inal Tarkhan) is mentioned by
the name of Khulkhan as the owner of the Vilargan region. Also in this document,
the ruler of Rob, Framarizm Shaburan, appears with the names “χαγανο” (khagan)
28
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p. 54.
29
Altheim Franz, Geschichte der Hunnen II. Zweiter band Die Hepthaliten in Iran, Berlin,Wal-
ter De Gryuter &CO,1969, p.3-9.
“
B a c t r i a n D o c u m e n t s F o u n d . . .
”
S a y f a
|
78
and “ταποαγλιγο υιλιτοβηρο” (tapaghligh iltäbär)
. In Document "S", the title
“ταδονο” (tudun) is mentioned, and he is recorded as the tudun of the Gaz region.
Document "T" states that Bek Oziyos, the wife of Tapaghligh Bilga Savush, the great
ruler of the Khalaj Turks, gave thanks to the god Kamird for the recovery of her
newborn child from illness and dedicated property and a person as a sacrifice to him.
Turkic titles and positions are also mentioned in the letters section of the Bactrian
documents. For example, in document "eh", an official letter was sent from the judge
of Tokharistan and Gharchistan to Ohrmazd Bunukan. Its greeting and respect
section b
egins with “ηβοίδαλο ιαβγο” (Yabghu of the Hephthalites). The sender
reports on his health and acknowledges awareness of Ohrmazd Bunukan's letter
about his health. The main orders in this document, which is of an official
correspondence nature, are related to supervising agriculture and managing grain.
Ohrmazd Bunukan is ordered to hand over the grain and collect it from the citizens.
Another official document, "ja", consists of Kilman's appeal to Abag regarding the
financial problem of Zun-bandag. The preamble of the letter begins with "To Abag,
the ruler of the famous and prosperous Yabghu of the Hephthalites." In it, Zun-
bandag complains to Kilman that Tos is not giving him the tax payment and is
making excuses. Kilman appeals to Abag, demanding that he ensure Tos returns what
he took from Zun-bandag
. The document ends with the warning "Do not do
hidden evil!". In our opinion, this is aimed at ensuring justice and preventing illegal
actions.
Document "jb" pertains to a matter of theft, and the greeting part of the letter begins
with "To Sart Khwadevbandag, the glorious Yabghu of the Hephthalites, ruler of
Rob, secretary of the Hephthalite rulers, judge of Tokharistan and Gharchistan, the
noble ruler." The main content of the document is Azgarak's appeal to Sart
Khwadevbandag regarding the matter of returning the stolen money of a citizen
named Spiy. He asks about Spiy's case, stating that the thieves who stole his money
have fled, that Spiy should return as soon as the thieves come back, and he appeals
for an order to have his money fully returned within ten days
. The document shows
the practice of resolving disputes related to property theft through rulers. The setting
of a specific deadline for the return of the stolen money (within ten days) indicates
the existence of legal regulation.
Titles such as khagan, yabghu, tarkhan, and tudun appear directly in the Bactrian legal
texts. This parallels Arabic and Persian sources: al-Tabari, for instance, describes
Turk rulers with the title qaγan
, while Gardizi mentions yabghu and tudun as key
30
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan.I: Legal and
Economic Documents, Oxford, 2001, p.74,82,88.
31
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan II: Letters and
Buddhist Texts, London, 2007, p.122-123.
32
Nicolas Sims-Williams, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan II: Letters and
Buddhist Texts, London, 2007, s.126.
33
al-Tabari,
Ta’rikh al
-rusul wa-l-muluk
, vol. II, p. 1062.
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S a y f a D r . M a r o n b e k R A J A P O V
officials
. Unlike narrative sources, however, the Bactrian documents embed these
titles within administrative and legal contexts.
Conclusion
Overall, the Bactrian documents found in Northern Afghanistan are, without a
doubt, a unique source of fundamental importance for studying the socio-economic,
legal, and cultural life of early medieval Turan. These documents, alongside
traditional written sources in Chinese, Armenian, Syriac, Pahlavi, Indian, Arabic, and
Persian, fill important gaps in reconstructing the multifaceted picture of the region's
history. Unlike other sources that focus more on political history, the Bactrian
documents are particularly valuable for providing direct information about the daily
lives of the common people, property relations, trade, the tax system, slavery, and
legal practices.
These documents contain important information about the system of state
administration and law. In particular, administrative correspondence, contracts, loan
agreements, and tax collection practices confirm the existence of a developed legal
system and state administration mechanisms in the region. The single and double-
copy documents, the presence of witnesses, specific dates, and guarantee clauses
show the great importance attached to contractual relations in the society of that
time.
Information on the sale and purchase of property, land leases, loan relationships, the
two types of slavery (hereditary and purchased), as well as the manumission of slaves,
provides a valuable understanding of the social stratification and economic activity
of the region's population. In particular, the appearance of Turkic names, titles (e.g.,
tarkhan, khagan, tudun, yabghu), and positions in the documents provides direct
evidence of the active participation of Turkic peoples in the land of Turan during the
early medieval period and their role in state administration. The fact that the
Hephthalites called themselves
Abadalo
serves as an important clue regarding their
Turkic ethnic affiliation.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that approaches in national
historiography, such as incorrectly generalizing the Bactrian documents as the
"Ravataki archive" and linking them only with the Kushan period, have hindered the
use of the documents' full potential. The fact that the documents cover the 4th
–
8th
centuries creates broad opportunities for studying the complex political and social
processes of the region during the periods of the Chionites, Kidarites, Hephthalites,
Turkic Khaganate, and the Arab Caliphate.
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Iran, Berlin,Walter De Gryuter &CO,1969.
34
Gardizi,
Zayn al-akhbar
, ed. Barthold, Lelingrad, 1929, p. 152.
“
B a c t r i a n D o c u m e n t s F o u n d . . .
”
S a y f a
|
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Ta’rikh
-i Bukhara
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