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HISTORICAL AND LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC CHANGES IN
ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY
Madla Muhammedali
M.A, B. ED, TESOL Calicut University (INDIA) english teacher (UzSWLU)
Beknazarova Iroda
Teacher Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages
Abstract
. Phraseology, as a crucial aspect of any language, encompasses idioms, proverbs,
and fixed expressions that develop over time. The meanings of phraseological units are subject to
constant change due to linguistic, cultural, and historical influences. This article provides a
comprehensive historical-linguistic analysis of semantic changes in English phraseology,
focusing on the main types of semantic transformations, their causes, and their role in language
evolution. The study highlights how socio-political events, technological progress, and cultural
shifts contribute to the modification of phraseological meanings, making them a valuable
linguistic resource for understanding historical language dynamics.
Key words:
Phraseology, Semantic changes, English language, Idioms, Proverbs, Fixed
expressions, Historical-linguistic analysis, Semantic transformations, Socio-political events,
Cultural shifts, Technological progress, Narrowing of meaning, Expansion of meaning,
Metaphorical shift,
Euphemistic change, Pejoration, Amelioration, Linguistic evolution,
Historical events, Cultural influences
Language is a living system that continuously evolves under the influence of various internal
and external factors. As societies progress, cultures interact, and new technologies emerge,
linguistic structures adapt to reflect these changes. One of the most dynamic and expressive
components of language is phraseology, which includes idioms, proverbs, sayings, and other
fixed expressions. These units are deeply rooted in the historical and cultural contexts of a
language, often carrying metaphorical meanings that extend beyond their literal interpretations.
Over time, phraseological units undergo semantic shifts, altering their meanings, connotations,
and usage. The study of semantic changes in phraseology is crucial for understanding not only
linguistic evolution but also the social and historical processes that shape communication. These
changes provide valuable insights into:
How historical events shape language evolution – Wars, revolutions, migrations, and
significant political transformations introduce new meanings to existing expressions or lead to
the creation of new idioms and proverbs.
The role of cultural shifts in modifying phraseological meanings – As societal values and
norms change, certain expressions acquire different connotations, sometimes becoming obsolete
or developing new metaphorical interpretations.
The impact of linguistic innovations on fixed expressions – Advancements in science,
technology, and media influence language use, leading to the emergence of new phraseological
units or the reinterpretation of older ones.
Phraseological expressions serve as linguistic fossils, preserving traces of historical events,
cultural ideologies, and social practices. Understanding their semantic transformations allows
linguists, historians, and language learners to grasp how language reflects the continuous
adaptation of human thought and experience.
This article aims to analyze the main types of semantic changes in English phraseology from a
historical-linguistic perspective and examine the key factors driving these changes. By exploring
different patterns of semantic shift—such as narrowing, expansion, metaphorical extension,
euphemism, and changes in connotation—this study highlights the dynamic nature of
phraseology as a reflection of historical and societal transformations.
Types of Semantic Changes in English Phraseology. The meanings of phraseological
units can change in various ways. The primary types of semantic changes include narrowing,
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expansion, metaphorical shift, euphemistic change, and shifts in connotation (pejoration and
amelioration).
1.
Narrowing of Meaning.
Semantic narrowing occurs when a phraseological unit’s
meaning becomes more specific over time. Example:
Mea
t (Old English:
mete
) originally
referred to any kind of food. Over time, it narrowed in meaning and now specifically denotes
animal flesh.
Deer
once meant any wild animal but now refers only to a specific species.
Apple.
In Old English, the word
æppel
referred to any type of fruit. Over time,
apple
became restricted
to the specific fruit we know today, while other fruits were given distinct names.
Wife.
In Old
English,
wīf
referred to any woman, not just a married one. Over time, the meaning narrowed to
specifically denote a married woman.
Liquor.
In Middle English,
liquor
referred to any liquid
substance.Over time, it became restricted to alcoholic beverages.
2.
Expansion of Meaning.
In contrast to narrowing, expansion occurs when a word or
phrase acquires a broader meaning than it originally had. Example:
Holiday.
Originally,
holiday
meant a religious festival or a "holy day" dedicated to religious observance.Over time, the
meaning expanded to include any period of rest, vacation, or leisure time, regardless of religious
significance.
Journey.
Derived from the Old French
journée
, meaning "a day's travel," the term
initially referred to the distance a person could travel in one day.Today,
journey
has a much
broader meaning, referring to any long trip or even metaphorical experiences (e.g., "a journey of
self-discovery").
Thing.
In Old English,
thing
(or
þing
) specifically referred to a council or an
assembly for discussion.Over time, the word's meaning expanded to include any object, concept,
or matter in general use.
Bird
Originally,
bird
(Old English
brid
) referred only to young or small
birds.Over time, its meaning expanded to include all avian species.
3.
Metaphorical Shift.
Metaphorical changes occur when an expression takes on a
figurative meaning, often unrelated to its original literal sense. Example:
Kick the bucket.
Literal
origin: This phrase is believed to have originated from an old method of execution or suicide,
where a person standing on a bucket would kick it away, leading to hanging. Metaphorical
meaning: Today, it simply means "to die," without any reference to its original literal action.
Spill the beans
.
Literal origin: Some sources trace this phrase back to an ancient Greek voting
system, where beans were used to cast votes. Spilling the beans could reveal the outcome
prematurely.Metaphorical meaning: Now, it means "to reveal a secret."
Break the ice.
Literal
origin: In the past, breaking ice on rivers or lakes was necessary for ships to pass through. It also
symbolized breaking barriers between groups.Metaphorical meaning: Now, it refers to easing
tension in social situations or starting a conversation.
Bite the bullet.
Literal origin: Soldiers used
to bite on a bullet during surgery without anesthesia to endure the pain. Metaphorical meaning:
Today, it means "to endure a painful or difficult situation bravely."
4.
Euphemistic Change
. Euphemisms arise when phrases are modified to sound more polite
or less harsh. This often occurs in expressions related to death, bodily functions, or social taboos.
Example:
Death-related euphemisms:Pass away
replaced
die
to soften the impact of the
phrase.
Rest in peace (RIP)
is a respectful way of referring to someone’s death.
Departed
or
gone
to a better place
is often used in place of
dead
.
Job-related euphemisms:Let go
or
downsized
is
often used instead of
fired
when referring to job termination.
Career transition
is sometimes
used to refer to job loss.
Restructure
can be a euphemism for company layoffs.
Bodily function
and health euphemisms: Use the restroom
instead of
go to the toilet
.
Expecting
instead of
pregnant
.
Senior citizen
instead of
old person
.
Visually impaired
instead of
blind
.
Crime and
punishment-related euphemisms: Correctional facility
instead of
prison
.
Enhanced interrogation
instead of
torture
.
Collateral damage
instead of
civilian casualties
.
5.
Pejoration and Amelioration
. Semantic changes in phraseology are not limited to shifts
in denotation; they also involve transformations in connotation, where the emotional or
evaluative tone of a word or phrase changes over time. Two key processes in this domain are
pejoration and amelioration. Pejoration refers to a negative shift in meaning, where a phrase or
word acquires a more unfavorable or derogatory connotation than it originally had. Conversely,
amelioration describes a positive shift, where the meaning of a phrase improves, gaining a more
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favorable or prestigious connotation. These processes are often driven by cultural attitudes,
societal changes, and shifts in usage patterns, reflecting how speakers’ perceptions of certain
concepts evolve.
Pejoration (Negative Shift)
Pejoration occurs when a phrase or word’s meaning
deteriorates over time, often reflecting a decline in social perception or a shift toward a more
critical or negative judgment. This process can be influenced by historical events, changing
moral standards, or cultural biases. Examples include:
Silly:
In Old English, the term
sælig
meant
"happy," "blessed," or "innocent," carrying a positive or neutral tone. Over time, its meaning
shifted through Middle English (
sely
, meaning "pitiable" or "weak") to its modern sense of
"foolish" or "lacking seriousness." This gradual pejoration reflects a societal tendency to
associate simplicity or naivety with a lack of intelligence.
Villain:
Originally, in Old French
(
vilain
) and Middle English, this word referred to a "peasant" or "farmworker," a neutral
description of social status. By the Renaissance, it had deteriorated to mean a "wicked" or "evil
person," likely due to class prejudices that equated lower social standing with moral inferiority.
Cunning:
In Middle English,
cunning
meant "skillful" or "knowledgeable," derived from the Old
English
cunnan
("to know"). While it once had a positive or neutral connotation, it now often
implies deceit or slyness, as in "a cunning plan," reflecting a pejorative shift toward mistrust of
cleverness. Pejoration often occurs when a term becomes associated with undesirable traits or
behaviors, influenced by societal attitudes or stereotypes. For instance, terms linked to
marginalized groups or outdated professions may degrade as those groups or roles lose prestige.
Amelioration (Positive Shift).
Amelioration, in contrast, involves an elevation in meaning,
where a word or phrase gains a more positive or esteemed connotation. This process can result
from cultural valorization, technological advancement, or shifts in social values. Examples
include:
Knight:
In Old English,
cniht
simply meant "servant," "youth," or "attendant," a humble
term without particular prestige. During the medieval period, as the feudal system and chivalric
ideals developed, the term evolved to denote a "noble warrior" or "mounted soldier of high
rank," reflecting a significant ameliorative shift tied to the romanticization of knighthood.
Pretty:
Originally, in Old English (
prættig
), this word meant "crafty" or "sly," with a neutral or slightly
negative implication of trickery. Over time, its meaning improved to signify "attractive" or
"pleasing," particularly in reference to physical appearance, a clear example of amelioration
driven by changing aesthetic values.
Fond:
Derived from Middle English
fonned
("foolish" or
"infatuated"), this term once had a mildly negative or neutral connotation. By modern usage,
fond
has ameliorated to mean "affectionate" or "loving," as in "fond memories," reflecting a
positive emotional shift. Amelioration often occurs when a term becomes linked to admired
qualities or when societal changes elevate the status of a concept. For example, words associated
with emerging technologies or heroic ideals may improve in tone as those domains gain cultural
significance.
Broader Implications.
Pejoration and amelioration highlight the fluidity of language and its
deep connection to human experience. These shifts are not random but are shaped by extra-
linguistic factors such as class dynamics, gender roles, and historical developments. For instance,
pejoration is more common in words tied to femininity or lower social strata (e.g.,
hussy
shifting
from "housewife" to "immoral woman"), while amelioration often accompanies terms linked to
power or progress (e.g.,
marshal
moving from "horse servant" to "high-ranking officer"). By
studying these changes, linguists can uncover how societal values influence linguistic evolution,
offering a window into the interplay between language and culture.
Historical and Cultural Influences on Phraseology.
1.Medieval and Renaissance Influences. Many English idioms originated in medieval
society, often reflecting feudalism, religion, and chivalry. Examples:
By hook or by crook
(referring to legal loopholes in land laws).
Turn the other cheek
(originating from biblical
teachings).
2. The Impact of Colonialism and Globalization. The British Empire's expansion led to
the borrowing of phraseological units from other languages. Examples:
C’est la vie
(French for
"that’s life").
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3. The Influence of the Industrial and Digital Revolutions. Technological progress has
introduced new phraseological expressions, some of which have changed meaning over time.
Examples:
Go viral
(originally related to viruses, now used for rapidly spreading online content).
Boot up
(originating from early computing terminology, now commonly used in everyday
language).
Factors Influencing Semantic Changes in Phraseology.
1. Linguistic Factors
- Polysemy: Words naturally develop multiple meanings over time.
- Ellipsis: Some words in expressions are omitted, leading to a shift in meaning (e.g., long
story short).
2. Extra linguistic Factors.
Historical Events
: Wars, revolutions, and social changes
contribute to phraseological shifts.
Cultural Evolution
: Changes in social norms and values
impact idiomatic expressions.
Technological Advancements
: New inventions modify language
use.
Semantic changes in English phraseology reflect the continuous evolution of language.
The transformation of phraseological units is driven by historical, social, and linguistic factors.
Understanding these changes provides valuable insights into the development of English and
helps linguists, historians, and language learners grasp the dynamic nature of idiomatic
expressions.
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