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rest of the class and course. They also need to give the students enough
individual preparation time before the discussion. This allows them to
consider the topic and look up any needed vocabulary. You can also support
the students by modelling the activity and by providing materials like role
cards or realia. Next, one needs to make the instructions clear and more
importantly to state the desired outcomes. Finally, the task should have a
clear “end game”.
The ability to measure the effectiveness of the speaking activity is
closely tied to the specificity of the desired outcomes. If the students
understand what they need to achieve during the activity, then it becomes
their responsibility to produce. It is up to the instructor to “connect” this
output to another instructional activity, like a presentation, writing
assignment, web page creation, plays, or videos/audios.
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/teaching-large-classes
2.
https://www.englishclub.com/teaching-tips/teaching-large-
3. researchgate.net/post/
4. britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/
5. englishclub.com/teaching-tips/teaching-large-classes.htm
6. teachingenglish.org.uk/article/teaching-large-classes
Feruza Khayitova, Teacher of Termez State University,
Faculty of Foreign languages,
PRINCIPLES OF TOPONYMS (PLACE NAMES)
F. Khayitova
Abstract: Toponyms (place names) represent language units denoting
elements of topographic environment. The relevance of the study is caused
by the need to develop the theory of toponymy and to systematize all the
existing toponymic classifications. Place names have a complicated
(multidimensional) nature, which should be taken into account while
classifying them.
Keywords: toponym, place name, toponymy, classification, principle,
nickname
This research is an attempt to highlight various principles according to
which it is possible to group the place names. The research is based on
15000 British and 17000 American toponyms, received from toponymic
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dictionaries, reference books and electronic toponymic search systems GNIS
(Geographic Names Information System) and Get-a-map. Toponyms can be
classified according to the following principles: 1) parametric
characteristics of an object, 2) ontological characteristics of an object, 3)
type of toponymic basis, 4) etymological characteristics of place names, 5)
motivational characteristics of place names, 6) chronological characteristics
of place names, 7) structural characteristics of toponyms, 8) toponymic
polysemy, 9) degree of toponymic nomination, 10) variety of toponymic
nomination, 11) localization of an object. It is obvious that it is impossible to
create a unified classification of place names, which would reflect the entire
multidimensional nature of the toponymic vocabulary. Classifying
toponymic nominations, one must consider the multifaceted (intra- and
extra-linguistic) principles of allocation of toponymic units.
Place names (toponyms) are the linguistic signs of a natural language
denoting certain fragments of topographic space. These linguistic signs form
a system, called
a toponymic system , which is artificially contractual in
character. Toponyms are a kind of repositories of political, social and
cultural views of the society, which display certain language trends and
peculiarities of word formation. Toponyms make up a significant part of the
lexical fund of the language. According to some researchers, "toponymic
layer constitutes 2-3% of common vocabulary" (Toporov, 1962: 56).
There become fewer and fewer unnamed geographical objects as
humankind learns and develops new geographical objects on the earth and
expands its geographical horizons.The geographical name is a part of the
lexical system of a particular nation. It is formed according to "the
fundamental laws of the language and it functions in speech in accordance
with its basic rules and traditions" (Leonovich, 1994: 55). Any geographical
object has both a geographic term, which determines its type, and a
geographical name; therefore, a topographic object is "named twice",
enriching the semantics of a toponym.
The aim of this research is to provide and systematize different
principles of place names classification, taking into account their
complicated (multidimensional) nature. The research is based on 15000
British and 17000 American toponyms, received from toponymic
dictionaries, reference books and electronic toponymic search systems GNIS
(Geographic Names Information System) and Get-a-map.
The main disadvantage of classification schemes of toponyms is the
impossibility to "fit all the variety of geographical names into the
Procrustean bed of one classification" (Murzaev, 1996: 115). However, some
linguists tried to classify toponyms combining different principles
simultaneously. One of the first researchers to classify place names in any
systematic manner was George R. Stewart. In 1954, he published an article
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in
Names entitled "A classification of place names". His typology based on
the “naming-process” recognizes ten main toponym types: 1)
descriptive
names and compass-point names (names that describe and characterize the
object's quality or its location; 2)
associative names (names that evoke
associations with different objects); 3)
incident names (names from an
event associated with a person, G. Stewart also refers to this group acts of
God, calendar names, animal names, names of human actions, names from
feelings, names from sayings); 4)
possessive names (names originated from
some idea of ownership); 5)
commemorative names (names given in
memory or in honor of outstanding people and names for abstract virtues);
6)
commendatory names (names given by some attractive peculiarities of a
geographical object); 7)
folk etymologies (names with false etymology); 8)
manufactured names (names which have been consciously constructed of
fragments of other words, or names from initials,
There are a great number of place names in the English language. We
analyzed over 32000 place names of Great Britain and the USA and
distinguished 11 main principles according to which toponyms can be
classified. The specificity of geographical names lies in the fact that along
with naming and identifying objects they reflect, capture and retain social
and historical facts in the development of the society, bringing ideological
messages from the past to our daily lives. Toponyms are regarded as a result
of human cognitive activity, establishing relations between different entities
in the world and expressing this relationship in the created name. Onomastic
units represent the world the way we live in, the way it is seen, learnt,
comprehended and reflected.
References:
1.ALDERMAN, D. 2000. A street fit for a King: naming places and
commemoration in The American South. Professional Geographer.
2. ARTEMOVA, AF – LEONOVICH OA 2010. Geograficheskie nazvanija
Velikobritanii. Inostrannye jazyki v shkole. Moskva, (1), pp. 60-67. ISSN:
0130-6073.
3. BEAUCHAMP, WM 2011. Aboriginal Place Names of New York.
Albany: New
York State Education Department. ISBN: 978-5-8747-8300-6.
4. BEAUREPAIRE, F. 1979. Les Noms des communes et anciennes
paroisses de la
Seine-Maritime. Paris. ISBN: 2-7084-0040-1.
