European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
and Management Studies
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TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
55-61
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
17 December 2024
ACCEPTED
19 January 2025
PUBLISHED
21 February 2025
VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue02 2025
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Polymers Used in Dentistry
Abdurashidov Oybekjon Abdurashid ugli
Assistant, Samarkand State Medical University, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
Abstract:
Polymers (from poly... + Greek meros
—
fraction, part)
—
substances, the molecules
(macromolecules) of which consist of a large number of
repeating units. Polymers are the basis of plastics,
chemical fibers, rubber, paint and varnish materials,
adhesives. At the same time, there are 2 main
mechanisms
for
obtaining
polymers:
through
polyaddition and polycondensation.
Keywords:
Plastics, chemical fibers, rubber, paint and
varnish materials.
Introduction:
Polymers (from poly... + Greek meros
—
fraction, part)
—
substances, the molecules
(macromolecules) of which consist of a large number of
repeating units. Polymers are the basis of plastics,
chemical fibers, rubber, paint and varnish materials,
adhesives. At the same time, there are 2 main
mechanisms
for
obtaining
polymers:
through
polyaddition and polycondensation.
The creation of polymers for dentistry often leads to the
development of materials that have found application in
other fields of medicine and technology. Such an
example is the development of epoxy resins, as well as
fast-curing compositions of an amine peroxide system,
which are now widely used in engineering and medicine.
The main starting compounds for the production of
polymeric dental materials are monomers and
oligomers [mono-, di-, tri- and tetra(met)acrylates].
Monoacrylates are volatile, so they are used in
combination with high molecular weight esters, which
reduces polymer shrinkage. Di-[tri-, tetra-](met)
acrylates are found in most composite restoration
materials, as well as in basic plastics as crosslinking
agents.
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To facilitate the processing of polymers and give them
a complex of required physical and mechanical (impact
strength, fracture, bending, stretching, compression,
etc.; matching the color of the hard tissues of teeth or
oral mucosa, hardness, abrasion resistance), chemical
(bond strength with artificial teeth, minimum residual
monomer
content),
technological
(simplicity,
convenience and reliability of processing) and other
properties (see Various components are introduced into
their composition
—
fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, dyes,
crosslinking agents, antimicrobial agents that mix well in
the polymer to form homogeneous compositions and
have the stability of these properties during processing
and operation of the polymer material.
Fillers are introduced to improve physical and
mechanical properties, reduce shrinkage, and increase
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resistance to biological media. Powdered fillers are
mainly used in dental copolymers (various types of
quartz flour, silica gels, aluminum and lithium silicates,
borosilicates, various grades of finely ground glass,
hydrosilicates, phosphates).
The introduction of plasticizers into copolymer
compositions makes it possible to give them elastic
properties, as well as resistance to ultraviolet rays.
Various dyes and pigments are added to polymer
dental compositions to imitate dental tissues and
mucous membranes. The main requirements for them
are their harmlessness, uniformity of distribution in
the copolymer matrix, stability in color preservation
under the influence of external factors and biological
media, and good optical properties.
To obtain polymers, radical and partially ionic initiators
are used (benzoyl peroxide is most often used), that is,
substances that, when decomposed into free radicals,
begin a polymerization reaction.
The addition of activators in small amounts to the
catalyst causes a significant increase in the activity of
the latter.
Various quinones, mainly hydroquinone, are most
often used as inhibitors. The set of the above
components of
polymer materials
ultimately
determines all its physical and mechanical properties.
The deformation and strength properties of polymeric
dental materials change significantly under the
influence of the molecular weight and branching of
macromolecules, cross-links, the content of the
crystalline phase, plasticizers and grafting of various
compounds.
To assess the basic physical and mechanical properties
of dental copolymers, the following parameters are
determined: tensile strength, elongation at break,
modulus of elasticity, deflection strength, specific
impact strength.
The most important characteristic of the base material
is its plasticity and impact resistance. Basically, these
properties determine the functional qualities and
durability of the prosthesis.
One of the main qualities of copolymer materials is
water absorption (swelling), which can lead to changes
in the geometric shapes of base plastics, impair optical
and mechanical properties, and contribute to
infection. Water absorption as a physical property is
manifested during prolonged exposure of the base
plastics (i.e., the base of the prosthesis) in the moist
environment of the oral cavity.
An increase in the impact strength and elasticity of
brittle copolymers can be achieved by combining them
with elastic copolymers.
The thermophysical properties of copolymer materials
include heat resistance, thermal expansion, and thermal
conductivity. The value of heat resistance determines
the maximum operating temperature of the material.
For
example,
the
heat
resistance
of
polymethylmethacrylate according to Martens is 60-80
° C, and according to Vick
—
105-115 ° C. The
introduction of inorganic fillers increases heat
resistance, the introduction of plasticizers reduces it.
Thermal expansion is characterized by the magnitude of
linear and volumetric expansion.
Thermal conductivity determines the ability of materials
to transfer heat and depends on the nature of the
copolymer matrix, the nature and amount of filler
(plasticizer). As the molecular weight of polymers
increases, the thermal conductivity increases. Since the
thermal conductivity of PMMA is very low, it is an
insulator. This has a detrimental effect on the
physiology of the oral cavity.
The variety of polymer materials used in the clinic of
orthopedic dentistry creates certain difficulties for
creating a unified classification, since a variety of criteria
can be used as a classification feature.
Classification of polymers:
1. By origin:
—
natural or biopolymers (for example, proteins,
nucleic acids, natural rubber);
—
synthetic (for example, polyethylene, polyamides,
epoxy resins) obtained by polycondensation and
polycondensation methods.
2. By nature:
—
organic;
—
organoelement;
—
inorganic.
3. In the form of molecules:
—
linear, in which the structure of polymer or
copolymer molecules is represented as a long chain
consisting of monomeric units, for example, methyl
methacrylate units. Such chain molecules are bent and
intertwined, but they can move together when the
material is heated. The material is prone to dissolution
in the appropriate solvents. The domestic basic material
AKP-15 (Ethacryl) should be attributed to this group;
—
"crosslinked" polymers in which the polymer
structure is represented in the form of chains connected
and "crosslinked" in separate places by "bridges",
"bridges of a crosslinking agent", for example, glycol
dimethacrylate ether. Thus, the polymer structure can
be compared to a grid in which the chains cannot move
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freely relative to each other. Such a material cannot
dissolve in any of the solvents, but it can soften when
heated and swell in some solvents. A similar material is
the basic material Akrel;
—
"grafted" copolymers contain a so-called "grafted"
polymer capable of copolymerization, i.e. a polymer
such as fluorinated rubber, etc., the molecules of
which are chemically attached ("grafted") to linear
chain molecules of another polymer, for example
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA).
The structure of materials of this type is
heterogeneous, the smallest particles of the "grafted"
copolymer make the material opaque, give it increased
elasticity and impact resistance, depending on the
nature of the "stitching". The basic materials Fluorax,
Acronyl, etc. should be attributed to this group of
materials.
4. By appointment:
1) the main ones that are used for removable and
non
—
removable dentures:
- basic (rigid) polymers;
—
elastic polymers or elastomers (including silicone,
thiocol and polyester impression materials);
—
polymer (plastic) artificial teeth;
—
polymers for replacing defects in the hard tissues of
teeth, i.e. materials for fillings, pin teeth and inlays;
—
polymer materials for temporary permanent
dentures;
—
facing polymers;
—
restoration polymers (fast-curing);
2) auxiliary;
3) clinical.
As already mentioned, some impression masses should
be attributed to auxiliary polymer materials. Polymers
are used to make standard and individual impression
spoons, standard and individual protective polymer
caps, and temporary crowns to protect prepared teeth.
Polymers are part of composite materials and some
fixing cements. Many basic and auxiliary polymer
materials should be classified as clinical, since they are
used by a doctor at a clinical appointment.
In accordance with the above classification, a further
presentation of the material will be constructed.
Rigid base polymers. These materials are used for the
bases of removable plate and arc (butt) prostheses.
Currently, synthetic plastics (plastics) are widely used
in dentistry as basic materials.
The basic plastics used in the clinic of orthopedic
dentistry can be classified according to generally
accepted (traditional) criteria:
—
according to the degree of rigidity
—
plastics are rigid
(for the bases of prostheses and their restoration) and
soft or elastic, which are used independently (boxing
tires) or as a soft lining for a rigid base;
—
according to the temperature regime of
polymerization, they are divided into "hot" and "cold"
plastics ("self
—
hardening", "fast
—
hardening");
- according to the presence of dyes, they are divided into
"pink" and "colorless" plastics, etc.
At the same time, plastics as polymeric materials are
divided into 2 main groups:
1) thermoplastic (thermoplastics)
—
when they harden,
chemical reactions do not occur and the materials do
not lose their ability to soften upon repeated heating,
i.e. they are reversible. Despite the successful results of
a number of studies on the use of thermoplastics as
basic materials and methods for creating dentures from
them by injection molding, this type of materials has not
found wide application in the practice of orthopedic
dentistry. Apparently, the hardware difficulties in
obtaining a prosthesis, the lack of a reliable connection
of the thermoplastic base with artificial acrylic teeth
hindered the widespread use of these materials in
practice [Poyurovskaya I. Yu.];
2) thermosetting (reactoplastics)
—
when processed
into products, a chemical reaction occurs that leads to
hardening, and the material loses its ability to soften
upon repeated heating, that is, it is irreversible.
For several decades, basic materials based on
derivatives of acrylic and methacrylic acids have held
the primacy in dentistry. Acrylic materials have earned
a leading role due to their main properties:
—
convenience of recycling;
—
chemical resistance;
—
mechanical strength;
—
aesthetic qualities.
Most
basic
materials
currently
contain
polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA)
as
the main
ingredient.
Acrylic base plastics replaced rubber, which was used as
a base material until the mid-40s, and became
widespread, among other things, due to a fairly simple
application technology available to any dental
laboratory.
Much attention was paid by specialists to the
improvement of acrylic base materials. The following
areas of these works can be distinguished
[Poyurovskaya I. Yu.]:
—
copolymerization of acrylates;
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—
changes in the processing regime of polymer-
monomer acrylic compositions in the manufacture of
dentures;
—
complete abandonment of acrylates and the use of
injection-molded thermoplastics or other non-acrylic
materials, such as polyurethane, for manufacturing
bases [Balalaeva N. M.].
The copolymerization method, especially grafted
copolymerization, proved to be the most effective for
improving the physical and mechanical properties of
base materials. The use of this method made it possible
to obtain the domestic basic material Fluorax
(Batovsky V. N. et al.), and the study of polyacetals in
the basic materials led to the development of the
Acronyl material (Shteyngart M. 3. et al.).
The intensity of scientific research in the field of new
basic polymer materials indicates both the importance
and the difficulty of creating a high-strength,
convenient, cheap material for dentistry, without
fundamental changes in technological techniques.
The creation of more advanced polymer base materials
is carried out by the following methods (Shteyngart M.
3.):
—
crosslinking of copolymer molecules of methyl
methacrylate (for example, Acrel);
—
obtaining copolymer compositions (Acronyl,
Fluorax);
—
the introduction of plasticizing additives (Acronyl).
Thus, the modification of acrylic polymers remains the
main way to improve the basic materials, which can be
used to increase the impact and fatigue strength of the
bases of removable dentures. Examples of such a
modification are: the addition of a rubber phase to
powder particles, the introduction of high-modulus
fibers into the composition of the material. The
introduction of high-modulus polyethylene fibers into
the base material proved to be more effective in
achieving increased impact strength of the material
and at the same time its aesthetic properties did not
deteriorate than the addition of carbon fibers
[Poyurovskaya I. Yu.].
The discovery was the use of an electromagnetic field
(EPM) of the radio frequency range during plastic
polymerization, which significantly reduced the
content of residual free monomer in it and improved
its physical qualities (Trezuboe V.N., Bobrov A.P.,
Maksimovsky Yu.M., Zarembo V.N., Shteingart M.Z.,
Makarov K.A.).
The technology of the plastic base of the prosthesis
determines
the
implementation
of
physico-
mechanical, chemical, etc. the properties inherent in
its formulation, and involves the following mandatory
manipulations:
—
preparation of a plaster model with a wax base,
artificial teeth (and clamps) for plastering in a cuvette;
—
obtaining a gypsum mold;
—
removal of the wax base from the gypsum mold,
followed by filling it with a pre-prepared polymer-
monomer composition of the base plastic;
—
polymerization of the base plastic and subsequent
mechanical processing of the base of the prosthesis,
grinding and polishing.
A dental technician mainly works with plastics, from
which the basis of a removable prosthesis is being
created, in a specially equipped production room of the
dental laboratory
—
the polymerization room.
The time factor and the external temperature effect
during polymerization are variable and interdependent.
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