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THE ANCIENT STATE OF BACTRIA IN WRITTEN SOURCES.
Poyonov Ixtiyor Abdimo'min o'g'li, Independent Researcher, Department of
World History, Karshi State University
Phone (93) 072 49 69
Annotation. This article provides a brief overview of the Ancient Bactrian
state, including when it was founded and the territories it encompassed. It also
discusses its ancient cities, socio-economic structure, and economic life.
Furthermore, the article presents concise information derived from the accounts of
ancient Greek scholars and the findings of modern scientific research conducted on
the Ancient Bactrian state.
Keywords. Ancient Bactria (Bakhdi, Bakhtrish, Bactriana, Bactria, Balkh,
Bahlika, Tukhara), Shahnameh, Avesta, Vara, Kuchuktepa, Jarqoton, Bandikhan,
Qiziltepa, “Bakhtar”.
Introduction.
The territories located in northeastern Afghanistan and southwestern
Tajikistan are referred to in various written sources by names such as Bakhdi,
Bakhtrish, Bactriana, Bactria, Balkh, Bahlika, and Tukhara. In modern literature, it is
commonly acknowledged as Bactria (in the Shahnameh as the land of Bakhtar, and in
ancient Turkic sources as the land of heroes). Archaeological evidence suggests that
by the mid-2nd millennium BCE, a process of transition towards early statehood
began in the Surkhan Valley, driven by the rapid development of ancient agricultural
culture. This process had its own unique characteristics and patterns of gradual
development.
Methods
.
Considering that urban culture forms the basis of statehood, this process began
as early as the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE in the southern part of Uzbekistan,
in the Bactrian region, exemplified by the proto-urban settlement of Sapallitepa.
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According to A. Askarov, while Sapallitepa, with all its characteristics of ancient
urban planning culture, resembles a proto-city—that is, the "vara" structure
mentioned in the Avesta—the Jarqoton site was the first true city to take shape within
the territory of Uzbekistan. Jarqoton does not differ structurally from ancient cities of
the East.
Arrian identified Aorn and Bactra as the largest cities in Bactria
1
. Although
various opinions have been put forward regarding the localization of the city of Aorn,
E.V. Ritveladze identifies it as Oltyntepa
2
. Researchers believe that there is sufficient
evidence to compare ancient cities like Jarqoton with the forms of nomos-states in the
ancient East. However, the existence of writing in Jarqoton, a key characteristic of
Mesopotamian nomos-states, remains a subject of debate. Overall, there is scholarly
basis to suggest that political entities of the nomos or oasis type began to form in the
territories of ancient Bactria by the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BCE.
The first half of the 1st millennium BCE witnessed numerous historical and
cultural changes in the Bactrian territories. These changes were associated with the
following processes:
1.
The emergence and widespread distribution of iron artifacts.
2.
The emergence of fortified villages and their subsequent transformation
into cities.
3.
A significant change in material culture.
4.
The migration of Eastern Iranian tribes.
From an archaeological perspective, the period mentioned above corresponds
to the Yaz I culture of the Margiana type. Researchers date the Yaz I culture to the
turn of the 2nd to 1st millennium BCE – the 8th-7th centuries BCE. Numerous sites
resembling this culture have been discovered and studied in the Surkhan Valley.
During this period, four oases of Bactria – Ulanbulaksoy, Bustonsoy, Urgul, and
Khalkajar – were developed, and archaeological research suggests that Kuchuktepa,
Jarqoton, Bandikhan, and Kiziltepa served as their centers. It is possible that these
1
Арриан. III. 29.1.
2
Ртвеладзе Э.В. Александр Македонский в Бактрии и Согдиане. – С. 26 – 28.
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oases were the estates of settled agriculturalists and pastoralist-warriors under their
military leaders, and the centers were their residences.
Results.
In The Histories by Herodotus, the 'Father of History,' the Bactrian people are
mentioned alongside major powers such as Egypt and Babylon
3
. The Greek historian
Ctesias of Cnidus provides valuable information about Bactria. The historian recounts
the numerous cities in the region, the fortified capital city of Bactra (Balkh), the
Bactrian king Oxyartes, and his inexhaustible wealth. Researchers suggest that the
ancient Bactrian kingdom was considerably more powerful than neighboring regions,
holding a prominent position among them. Bactria's natural resources were also
renowned beyond its borders, extending as far as the Near East. In particular, the lapis
lazuli and spinel from Badakhshan were highly valued. Approximately 30 sites dating
to the 4th century BCE have been identified in northern Bactria
4
.
In the oldest sections of the Avesta, the phrase "Bakhdi, the beautiful land
with high-raised banners, as the fourth among the best lands and countries created by
Ahura Mazda" is found. Some scholars believe this corresponds to the term "Bakhtar."
Later ancient accounts of Bactria appear in the cuneiform inscriptions and relief
carvings of the Achaemenid kings. For example, on the palace walls of Persepolis,
one of the centers of the Achaemenid kings, Bactrians are depicted in relief carrying
vessels and with two-humped Bactrian camels. Therefore, Bactria, as an independent
satrapy, played a significant role in the economic and cultural life of the Achaemenid
state. According to the research of A. Sagdullaev, various accounts of Bactria are also
found in the works of ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus, Ctesias, Arrian,
Strabo, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Diodorus, and Pliny. These historians provide
information about the antiquity and advanced cultures of these states. In particular,
Ctesias of Cnidus offers accounts of the Assyrian king Ninus Belus's campaign into
Bactria, his marriage to the Bactrian woman Semiramis, and the Bactrian king
Oxyartes and his wealthy treasury. Ctesias's information about Bactria's borders is
3
Геродот. История. том VII, 66.
4
Ўша асар. – С. 16.
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also of interest. He reports that mountains block the path to the Bactrian plains from
the west, allowing access only through mountain passes. Bactria stretches from the
Tanais (Don) River to the Indus River, with the Tanais separating it from Europe and
the Indus separating it from India.
Herodotus mentions Bactria and the Bactrians 45 times in his work The
Histories. The term "Bactria" also appears in Aeschylus's tragedy The Persians, which
was staged in the 5th century BCE. Another ancient historian, Strabo, describes
Bactria as "the jewel of Ariana." In many cases, the information from written sources
is corroborated by archaeological evidence. Archaeological findings indicate that
cities had already formed in Bactria by the 7th-6th centuries BCE. Ancient cities such
as Oltyndilyortepa (Aorn), Bactria (Bolo Hissar), and Kiziltepa were surrounded by
strong defensive walls, which served as the foundation for the development of
statehood in these regions.
E.V. Ritveladze, summarizing research pertaining to this period in Bactria,
identifies the following ten oases of settlement in these territories
5
: These –
Ulanbulaksoy, Sharabad, Urgul (Bandikhan), Khalkajar, Upper Surkhan, Middle
Surkhan, Amu Darya, Vakhsh, Lower Kafirnihan, Boytudasht are settlements.
Discussion.
Thus, by the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, numerous socio-economic
changes occurred in the southern part of present-day Uzbekistan. Each of the oases
listed above likely formed a distinct territorial-political entity, possessing its own
name, administrative center, and major cities. For example, the ancient fortified
houses (Qizilcha) built in a square shape around ancient cities in the Surkhandarya
region consisted of 3-4 neighboring houses, forming a separate rural community.
Each large family community owned specific housing, livestock, and land, and was
to some extent economically independent. The territorial, economic, and social
consolidation of village communities, fundamentally different from primitive tribal
associations, indicates the emergence of early forms of statehood.
5
Ртвеладзе Э.В. Александр Македонский в Бактрии и Согдиане. – С. 57.
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During the 7th-6th centuries BCE, territorial divisions took shape in Bactrian
society, and the processes of settlement became more intense. Ancient cities had
agricultural hinterlands, fortresses appeared, and strongholds were built along
important trade routes. Defense structures played a leading role in the construction of
various buildings. The structure of ancient Bactrian agricultural regions varied
depending on natural-geographic location and conditions. Based on the number of
settlements and the total area of cultivated land, cultural-economic oases were divided
into several groups. The boundaries of the oases were closely linked to the boundaries
of irrigated agricultural areas and irrigation networks. Historical analysis shows that,
in many cases, statehood emerges and develops within a society, based on its internal
laws. The statehood of Bactria, the formation of which began no less than 3,500 years
ago, and this is scientifically proven, is a prime example of this.
Conclusion.
In conclusion, initial information about the emergence of early forms of
statehood in the territory of ancient Bactria can be found in the works of Herodotus,
Arrian, Strabo, Ctesias, Quintus Curtius Rufus, and Diodorus. All of this information
dates from the 7th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. In later years, E.V. Ritveladze
also researched the works of Greco-Roman historians and summarized this
information. A. Sagdullaev, in his research, also provides information about the
antiquity and advanced cultures of the ancient Bactrian state.
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