THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
28
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
PUBLISHED DATE: - 19-11-2024
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajmei/Volume06Issue11-05
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SMALL-SCALE RICE
PROCESSING AMONG WOMEN IN LAFIA
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF NASARAWA
STATE, NIGERIA
Omolara Adebimpe Adekanbi
Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Rice is a cash crop for Nigerian rice producers,
which means it is produced primarily for market.
Besides this, it is widely consumed in Nigeria.
Nigeria has experienced a rapid growth in rice per
capita consumption during the last three decades
from 5kg in the '60s up to 25kg in the late '90s
(FAO, 2002). Based on Table 1.1, it is obvious that
Nigeria is becoming one of the major importers of
rice in the world market. The foreign exchange is as
high as US $1 billion annually to import rice (FAO,
2002).
A combination of factors seems to have triggered
the increase in rice consumption including
urbanization and ease of preparation that fits easily
with the urban lifestyle of workers.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Open Access
Abstract
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
29
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Domestic production is however below the
national rice demand and Nigeria has had to fill the
gap by resorting to importing milled rice. The
average milled rice production in Nigeria between
the '70s and '80s and 2001 to 2006 is shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Average Milled Rice Consumption and Production in Nigeria (1970s - 1980s & 2001-
2005)
Year
Consumption (tonnes) Production (tonnes)
1970s
1,134
357.24
1980s
2,048
1,177.95
1990s
3,419
2,086.24
2001-2005 4,333
2,186.40
Source: Africa Rice Center (WARDA), 2007.
Role of Women in Rice Processing
The National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI) has
developed a rice technique capable of producing
high-quality rice, that is comparable to imports,
and it carried out a study in 1991 to measure the
extent to which women had adopted the
technology because women do ninety percent of
the work involved in processing rice (Ike
Nwachukwu, 2002).
Women do the cleaning of paddy to remove
extraneous matter, such as soil, crumps, stones,
stalk or straw, dust, weed seed, insects, twine, and
pieces of metal. The next stage is parboiling which
involves steeping the paddy in water and raising
the temperature to a required level to gelatinize the
endorsed kernel; this is also carried out by women.
They also do the cooking, steaming, and drying of
paddy. Some of the women possess small scale
milling machines but are very few compared to
male mill owners.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the fact that women are highly involved in
processing, they are not regarded as a target group
for agricultural policies in order to achieve self-
reliance in Nigeria and to eliminate rice
importation. Instead, the various plans, policies,
and programs formulated for the agricultural
sector such as the Operation Feed the Nation
Program during the plan period (1981-1985) made
no direct reference to the rural women as the target
group neither did it show them any recognition
(Christiana, 1991).
Furthermore, women face constraints that reduce
the efficiency of their labor. For example, women
are restricted to the use of primitive or traditional
milling methods which are very tiresome and less
efficient. The study which measured the extent to
which women had adopted the processing
technology developed by NCRI in 1991 showed
that only 49% of women knew about it and fewer
had used most of the techniques taught (Ike
Nwachukwu, 2002). The reason for this is that
women have little access to extension services
because very few female extension agents are
available compared with the number of processors.
In addition, women in the rural areas that are
involved in rice processing have limited education,
land, agricultural inputs, and credit facilities.
For Nigeria to achieve self-reliance and eliminate
rice importation, positive returns must be realized
by the rice processing industries, at least they
should break even. The question is whether the
participants (i.e., women) in this industry operate
profitably or not. Do the inputs and method they
use in processing rice encourage profitability?
What are the problems associated with rice
processing among women especially in Lafia?
These are the questions that gave rise to the
following research questions:
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
30
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
1.
What are the socio-economic characteristics
of women in rice processing?
2.
What are the inputs used for rice processing?
3.
What are the costs and returns of small scale
rice processing?
4.
What is the technical efficiency of small scale
rice processing among women in Lafia
L.G.A.?
5.
What are the problems associated with rice
processing in Lafia local government area?
Objective of the Study
The general objective of this study is to examine the
economic performance of small scale rice
processing carried out by women in Lafia local
government area of Nasarawa state.
The specific objectives are to:
1.
Describe the socio-economic characteristics
of women participants in the small scale rice
processing in the study area.
2.
Determine the inputs used and method of
processing rice among women in Lafia local
government area.
3.
Estimate the cost and returns of small scale
rice processing by women in Lafia local
government area.
4.
Calculate the technical efficiency of small
scale rice processing among women in Lafia
local government area.
5.
Identify the problems associated with rice
processing among women in Lafia local
government area.
Justification of the Study
Nigeria is one of the major rice-importing countries
in the world (FAO, 2001), therefore one of the most
important objectives of the agricultural sector is to
achieve self-reliance in rice production in order to
eliminate rice import. In order to take advantage of
the potentiality of the country to provide sufficient
rice for the demand, rural women who produce and
process most of the rice grain must become the
focus of agricultural policies (Christiannah, 1991).
The data collected by NCRI in 1991 shows that out
of 28 states from which the data was collected, it is
only in two states that men process rice. In the
other states, rice processing is done mostly by
women. Therefore, there is an urgent need to give
support to these women in order to achieve self-
reliance by eradicating the constraints that these
women face so as to enhance the efficiency of the
small-scale rice processing among women.
The small-scale mills are the:
(i) the traditional hand pounding method
(ii) the simple mechanized small-scale milling
method
(iii) the modern large-scale milling method
Estimates (Presidential Rice Initiative, 2002)
indicate that there are 3500 small/medium rice
mills scattered all over Nigeria but most are
concentrated in Lafia (Nasarawa state), Abakiliki
(Ebonyi state), and Bida (Niger state), and about
85% of Nigeria rice is processed through small
units.
Lafia local government area, which is the case
study, lies within the rice-producing areas of the
River Benue Basin. As a result, a harvest of rice is
turned out every year which requires efficient and
functional processing facilities.
Study Area Importance
The study area is important because it will provide
information to reveal the points and areas in small
rice processing among women that require
modification of policies, intervention, adjustment,
and improvement to enhance the processing of
good quality rice under a more advanced and
efficient method of rice processing. The findings of
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
31
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
this study will provide vital information to women
who process rice in the state. It is also envisaged
that this study will bring to focus areas where
government policies are needed to improve both
the quality of life of women processors and the
quality of rice processed locally.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Rice Production
Among low- and middle-income countries, rice is
by far the most important crop worldwide. In
particular, rice is closely associated with the south,
southeast, and East Asian nations extending from
Japan. Here the population pressure on limited
land resources is high, and close balance is
maintained between rice production and food
needs. Within this area, rice is preeminent: it
occupies more than one-third of total planted area
in most countries, and one-fifth or more of China
and India. Of 25 major rice-producing countries, 17
are located within this region. The eight countries
outside the region produce less than 6% of the
world’s rice. World rice demand is predicted to
increase at about 1% per year from 2001 to 2025.
From
1965-67
through
1989-91,
the
improvements in production spawned by the
Green Revolution spread rapidly. During those
years, total rice production almost doubled. Most of
this increase came from increased yields and
increased cropping intensity, although some
resulted from new land brought under cultivation
or shifted into rice from other crops. Much of the
yield increase could be traced to the introduction
of dwarfing varieties and to the increased use of
fertilizer and irrigation water outputs (MacLean et
al., 2002).
Rice is ranked fifth among the food crops in Nigeria.
It is widely cultivated in the country in the former
Benue Plateau state (present-day Nasarawa state
inclusive), northwestern and western states as the
leading producing states in that order, followed by
Kwara and East Central states (Barau, 1979).
Production of rice on average has increased in
Nigeria over the years.
Rice as a Women's Crop
In many areas of West Africa, rice is produced
primarily by women farmers, thus producing an
important share of their income. Women’s
economy tends to benefit children and other
vulnerable groups more than the income of men.
Despite this fact, past efforts to develop and
transfer new rice technologies have most often
bypassed women farmers. Thus, although rice
research can be particularly effective in improving
the welfare of rural groups at risk, it needs to be
explicitly structured and focused to deal with
complex gender issues.
In recent years, it has been recognized by
researchers and development agencies that
women contribute between 60-80% of agricultural
production in developing countries. Moreover,
researchers are finding that women farmers tend
to predominate in the group that most programs
try to reach, namely: smallholders, low-income
producers of the most essential crops for self-
sufficiency for families, communities, and countries
(Maclean, 2002).
Processing in Agricultural Development
Processing is one of the most important physical
functions of marketing. For the fact that a large
portion of farm production undergoes some degree
of change between harvesting and final use,
processing is perhaps the most important
component of agribusiness development; and
because it is capable of strongly shaping farm
production processes (Olayide and Heady, 1982).
The purposes of processing are quality
enhancement,
presentation,
and
product
differentiation. Certainly, in their raw form, most
farm products do not give satisfaction unless they
are transformed into more acceptable forms
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
32
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
through processing. Simple processing methods
can transform perishable crops and cereals into a
range of storable value-added products, which can
meet the needs of the expanding markets (Ferris,
1999).
Processing is a source of income for many low-
income earners in Nigeria; it provides employment
opportunities for many people in rural areas.
Processing generates exports because raw material
must be processed into forms suitable for export.
Processing stimulates increased food production
for the domestic economy; they contribute to the
country’s food security by improving
storage,
transportation, and handling.
Importance of Women in Rice Processing
In Nigeria, the status and role of women vary from
one ethnic group to the next. Women play an
essential role in socio-economic life. Traditionally,
women provide food for the family and are also
responsible for performing other stressful
household chores.
In 1985, the Nigerian Stored Products Research
Institute estimated that between 30-50% of grains,
roots, and tubers, and nearly 100% of the fruits and
vegetables end up as waste because of poor
processing and storage. In June 1989, the chairman
of the Directorate of Food, Roads, and Rural
Infrastructure asserted that an estimated N17.9
billion of agricultural output was lost annually
through spoilage and wastage. This situation leads
to a reduction in national income and nutrition
standards, and substantia
l reduction in the nation’s
food supply (Olatoye, 1989).
Better processing can reduce this loss by making
improved technology available in rural settings.
Across Nigeria, food processing and preservation
activities are handled primarily by rural women,
mainly using traditional methods, which are
tedious and often inefficient (Christiana, 1991).
Rice Processing Technology
The National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI) has
developed a rice processing technique capable of
producing high-quality rice that is comparable with
imports. Women do 90% of the work involved in
processing rice.
The objective was to find a rice soaker made up of
a boiler and a steamer. The boiler is placed on a
wood- or gas-fired furnace. The rice is soaked in
water heated to 75°C and covered with a jute bag.
Soaking lasts for six hours. The water is then
drained off; the boiled water is poured into the
steamer and left for twenty minutes. It is then
spread out to dry before milling.
In the Middle Belt, a study carried out in 1991
measured the extent to which women have
adopted the technology. In four out of eight zones,
230 women were interviewed.
This parboiling plant did not prove very popular in
the region. Only 49% of the respondents knew
about it, and only 2% had used most of the
techniques taught. NCRI has decided to organize
training for female extension agents, people close
to the women who prepare the rice, religious
leaders, and professional organizations. It also
intends to distribute equipment throughout
Nigeria (Ike Nwachukwu, 2002).
To prove that women are more involved in
processing than men, Table 2.3 shows the
preferred varieties processed in 14 states in
Nigeria and the genders involved.
Table 2.3 Preferred varieties of rice processed in 14 states in Nigeria and genders involved
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
33
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Preferred Varieties Village
State
Processing Method Processor Reasons for choice
FARO 44
Dass
Bauchi
Mill
Female
Palatable sticks well
FARO 44
Debardak
Bauchi
Mill/Manual
Both
Palatable
MAS
Adaka
Benue
Mill/Manual
Female
Sweet long grain
FARO 25
Bar
Benue
Mill/Manual
Female
Sweet long grain
FARO 26
Okwaro
Ekiti
Mill/Manual
Both
Ripens at right time
De Gaulle
Zabarmari
Borno
Mill/Manual
Both
Swells on cooking
Dan maizidun
Konduga
Borno
Mill/Manual
Female
High yield, swells
Jango, Faro, 14, 15
Ugboro
Cross River Mill/Manual
Both
Sweetness
FARO 14, 15
Igbora
Cross River Mill/Manual
Both
Expands, sweet
MAS, IR 8
Izi Ugumego Ebonyi
Mill/Manual
Both
Sweet, not sticky
MAS
Ndicahi
Ebonyi
Mill/Manual
Both
Good taste, good looking
IR 1416
Opanda
Enugu
Mill/Manual
Both
Sweet, long shelf life
IR 1416
Adani
Enugu
Mill/Manual
Male
Sells better than foreign rice
FARO 44
Dasa
Gombe
Mill/Manual
Female
High yield, quality
FARO 44
Hinna
Gombe
Mill/Manual
Female
Taste, bright colour
Ba Yawuri
Mashaya
Kebbi
Mill/Manual
Both
Taste
Danboto, jari iri
Gwadon
Kebbi
Mill/Manual
Female
Taste
Long grain varieties
Maigana
Kaduna
Mill/Manual
Female
Palatability
Small grain varieties Idon
Kaduna
Mill/Manual
Female
Swells well
Kilaki
Sabolari
Jigawa
Not stated
Female
Nice looking, tastes good
MAS, Ev-China
Kwadage
Jigawa
Not stated
Female
Taste, white colour, long
BG 90
Assakio
Nasarawa
Mill/Manual
Female
Swells very well
BG 90
Sabon Gida
Nasarawa
Mill/Manual
Female
Swells well
FARO 44
Longvel
Plateau
Mill/Manual
Female
Bright, swells, sweet
Bida
Ganawuri
Plateau
Mill/Manual
Female
Easy to swallow
Karamin iri
Alagano
Yobe
Mill/Manual
Female
Very sweet
Karamin iri
Karage
Yobe
Mill/Manual
Female
Sweet
Source: National Cereal Research Institute.
From the above, there is no doubt that women dominate the processing sector of rice production.
Rice Processing Operations and Systems
The rice grain consists of the true fruit or brown
rice (caryopsis) and the hull, which encloses the
brown rice. Brown rice consists mainly of the
embryo and endosperm. The surface contains
several thin layers of differentiated tissues that
enclose the embryo and endosperm.
The palea, lemmas, and rachilla constitute the hull
of indica rice (MacLean, 2002). To make the rice
available for consumption, it has to be separated
from the husk/hull, a process known as hulling.
The rice grain can be hulled raw. For several
reasons, it undergoes some processes such as
cleaning, parboiling, drying, milling, pearling
(whitening), polishing, and grading. In some
instances, additives are added to milled rice (Grist,
1975).
Cleaning
The paddy must be put through a cleaning process
because when rice is harvested from the farms,
threshed, winnowed, and packed for milling, it is
not yet in a suitable condition for milling, as it may
contain more than 5% extraneous matter such as
stalks, sand particles, ionic particles, weed, insects,
and twine (Grist, 1975). This extraneous matter
can damage processing equipment and cause the
final product to be undesirable. To carry out the
cleaning operation, cleaning methods and
machinery such as drum-type cleaners, sieves,
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
34
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
aspirators, and magnetic separators are involved
(Grist, 1986).
Parboiling
Parboiling is a process that consists of steeping the
paddy in water and raising the temperature to a
required level to gelatinize the enclosed kernel.
The parboiling process is a hydrothermal process
that involves the gelatinization of starch within the
rice grain. An irreversible swelling and fusion of
starch granules occur (Barau, 1979). To parboil
paddy, three steps are involved: soaking, steaming,
and drying.
Soaking:
In the soaking process, the void spaces in the hull
and rice kernel are filled with water and swell due
to absorption of water by starch granules (Ali and
Ojha, 1976). Soaking is faster at high temperatures
than lower temperatures.
Steaming:
In steaming, the soaked paddy is exposed to heat
for a given period to gelatinize the starch in the rice
kernel. The temperature must not exceed 70°C;
otherwise, the paddy will be cooked. In modern
plants, paddy is steeped and boiled in the same
concrete or steel container, using higher average
steeping water temperature. Therefore, the whole
process is reduced to a period of 6 to 16 hours
(Grist, 1986). Steaming duration is dependent on
the quality of the paddy. Splitting of the husk can be
taken as an indication that the steaming process is
completed (Agrawala, 1963). This may not be a
necessary condition and the paddy can be properly
parboiled without any splitting of the husk (Ali and
Ojha, 1976).
Drying of Paddy:
This involves spreading grain on a flat surface to
dry, usually on the concrete floor in the local
method, to dry in the open. Drying of paddy is
essential for proper milling and storing. Excessive
exposure to drying, lower moisture content may
stress in the rice caryopsis or microscopical cracks
in the grain known as sun checking, which result in
excessive grain breakage during milling (Grist,
1986). Various industrial drying processes and
machines are employed in modern large mills.
After the stages mentioned earlier, it is necessary
to store the parboiled paddy so as to protect the
grain against moisture and also against
temperature change, microorganisms, insects, and
rodents. Storage also improves the cooking quality
of the product (Kill and William, 1945). The milling
quality has been found to be influenced by short
duration of storage. About 2-3 hours of storage
after conclusion of drying parboiled paddy in the
sun has been recommended. A storage period of 60
hours before milling test so that an equal
distribution of moisture in the grain may occur.
Parboiling rice is not without some disadvantages,
it develops more rancidity than raw rice during
storage and it takes more time to cook. It could also
develop a taste, texture, characteristic flavor, and
color that may be disliked by consumers among
others (Ali and Ojha, 1976).
Milling and Milling Technology
The structure of the paddy necessitates the
application of friction to the grain surface so as to
remove the husk. Through certain percentages of
broken rice can not be avoided, however, the
breakage can be reduced as much as possible
(Ruiten, 1976). The various methods used in
milling rice paddy are the
(i). Primitive milling method
(ii). Small-scale hulling and polishing
(iii). Large-scale modern mill (Barau, 1979)
Primitive milling method
This method involves the use of native implements
for hulling rice. In Nigeria and some other
developing countries, the mortar and pestle made
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
35
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
of wood operated by hand, foot, or water power are
used. Barau (1979) observed that 10 hours of labor
is required to process 45kg polished rice using this
method. Mortars are of various sizes and can hold
5kg to 20kg of paddy; about 20kg can be hulled per
hour.
The traditional methods are devised mainly to husk
paddy, that is, to just free rice from the glumes and
winnow it, for home consumption (Grist, 1986).
They are less effective and inefficient.
Small-Scale Hulling and Polishing
The amount of polishing that can be effected in the
modern small-scale mill is considerable and the
finished product approximates to rice of commerce
(Grist, 1986).
The Engel berg husker is often quite satisfactory
and are commonly available in hand operated sizes
or motorized versions of 3-10kw.
Small scale rice processing is the most common in
Nigeria. About 85 percent of Nigerian rice
processed through the small mills. This method
involves the use of mechanized milling units (often
operating the old cono disc technology) with a
maximum and minimum capacity of 600 and 200-
300 tons per day respectively (Presidential
initiative, 2002).
In some small scale mills the husk and bran are
removed simultaneously, hence they are called
“unit pass mill”. A combine husker and polisher, the
McKinnon No. 7 ‘Bon
-
Accord’ rice huller and
polisher with suction fan and with output capacity
of 300kg to 480kg cleaned rice per hour and is
suitable for milling either raw or parboiled rice
(Grist, 1986).
The disadvantages of small-scale rice processing
are that the incidence of broken rice is high and the
milled product still contains impurities. The bran
which is valuable as a source of animal feed is lost,
since the husk and bran come out together.
Large Scale Modern Mills
The large scale mills require high initial investment
cost, and are therefore owned and managed, and
are therefore owned and managed corporations,
cooperatives or governments. Large mills may be
able to deal with 200 to 500 or even 100 tonnes of
paddy a day (Grist, 1986). These include the
automatic rice mills, where parboiling, drying,
milling and polishing are all done by machines with
minimum human touch (Golleti, 1994).To obtain
high grade rice, the paddy passes through five
processes in the clearing, hulling (shelling or
husking), pearling and grading (Grist, 1986).
Cleaning: This is to remove foreign bodies which
may accompany the paddy from the fields.
Different mechanical cleaning processes and
machines are used.
Hulling: This principle is similar to the small-scale
mills but here the machines are bigger. Hulling
machines are called shelter, de-huskers and hulling
mills. An example is the Disc Huller, a rubber roller
husker which consists of two horizontal tangential
rubber rollers, revolving in opposite directions at
different speeds, the paddy runs in between the
rollers and causes the husk to be crushed and
removed from the kernel (Grist, 1986).
Pearling or Whitening: The rice grain consists of
five layers of coating which are removed as rice
bran in this process. A standard machine designed
for this purpose is the rice pearling cone (Grist,
1986).
Polishing: Rice is polished for a desired appearance
after pearling. The rice is passed through one or
more polishers.
Grading: Polished consists of whole rice kernel and
broken rice, they are separated in the process of
grading. Various levels of broken rice one retained
depending on the standard. A carter disc separator
is used for this purpose.
Additives: In order to give rice a fine glossy and
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
36
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
transparent appearance, additives are added to the
rice. The rice is passed through glazing drums, talc
with the substance to be added. Edible vegetable oil
is used for this purpose, for example groundnut oil,
castor oil (Ruiten, 1976).
Rice Products
The by-products of rice are hulls, bran, polished
rice, and broken rice.
Husks and hulls constitute 20% of the paddy, 5%
dirt, dead grain and other foreign matter; therefore
75 percent yield of rice and its by-products should
be expected. Obtainable are whole rice 50%, points
and broken 17%, bran 10%, meal 3%, husk 20%.
The husk are of few nutritive value and harmful to
animals due to high silicon content and of little
value of fertilizer. It can be used as fuel in
parboiling (Ali and Ojha, 1976).
Profitability Analysis
Cost and return analysis is usually the basis for
profitability analysis. This involves itemizing the
cost and the returns of the enterprise and using
them to arrive at estimates such as the gross
margin and gross returns (Osifo, 1970). Cost and
return analysis is a useful tool in enterprise
comparison and for indicating the profitability
pattern of aggregate used.
The Net Income analysis is also used as profitability
analysis. It involves evaluating the efficiency of an
individual enterprise so that comparison can be
made between enterprises or different operational
plans. It is a very useful tool in situations where
fixed capital is not negligible portion of the farming
enterprise as in subsistence agriculture. Net
Income by definition the difference between Total
income and total cost.
Descriptive statistics have been used to describe
socio-economic characteristics such as sex, age,
educational qualification, family size, and years of
experience in the rice processing business.
Common statistical tools such as the mean,
frequency distribution, charts, percentages and
tables are used in descriptive statistics.
METHODOLOGY
Study Location
Lafia local government area of Nasarawa state in
Nigeria is the location for the project. It is the state
capital and its geographical location is latitude 8°
35′ N and longitude 8° 34′ E. The local government
area is the ecological zone of the southern guinea
savannah.
Many cash and food crops are produced and
marketed in local government area. Lafia local
government is well known for rice production and
processing in the country. These activities offer
great opportunities for industrialization of
Nasarawa state.
The Lafia rice processing and milling industry
started as far back as early 1970s at a location
called United African Company (UAC) road initially
with 10 members running different mills. Due to
expansion in the processing activities, the site
could not accommodate the milling firms and
became inconducive for business activities. There
are 120 registered members including processors,
dealers, all with Rice Millers and Dealers
Association (RMAD). All rice milling activities
cannot take place anywhere in the local
government but within this industrial area
allocated for the purpose by government.
Sampling Procedure
A reconnaissance survey was carried out to find the
population of women rice processors in Lafia local
government. The result showed that there is an
estimated population of about 450 women
processors. Random sample was used to select
20% of the women processors. This gave a total
number of 90 women processors who were the
respondents.
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
37
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Data Source and Collection Method
Primary and secondary data were used for this
study. The primary data will be collected with the
aid of structured questionnaire. The respondents
were interviewed. This data include data on socio-
economic characteristics such as state, village, local
government area, sex, marital status, age, religion
and others. Data on processing activities such as
costs and number of bags of paddy processed per
day/hour/week, charges per bag of rice processed
etc. Secondary data were sourced from ADP and
Women in Agriculture.
Analytical Framework
The choice of analytical tools used depends on the
nature of the data collected and the objectives of
the study. Based on these considerations, the
following analytical tools were used: (i) Descriptive
statistics (ii) Net Income analysis (iii) Data
Envelopment Analysis
Descriptive statistics such as mean, median, range,
percentages was used to describe the socio-
economic characteristics of women processors.
These include age, education level, family size,
religion, years of experience. Other variables
include information on processing activities such
as cost and number of bags of paddy processed per
day/week. This tool was used to achieve objectives
one, two and five.
Net Income Analysis
Net Income analysis determines the difference between the Total revenue and the Total Cost (Total
variable and fixed cost). In this study, Net income will be applied to measure the cost and return of rice
processors. The formula for calculating Net Income is given as follows:
NI=TR−TC
Where:
NI = Net Income
TR = Total Revenue
TC = Total Cost
TC=D+Σ(X
i
r
i
)
Where:
TC = Total cost of processing per bag (₦)
D= Depreciation
X
i
= Quantity of input i used in processing one bag of paddy.
r
i
= Price per unit of input iii
Revenue is calculated as:
TR=Q×P
Where:
TR= Total Revenue derived from selling the quantity of milled rice obtained from 1 bag of paddy.
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
38
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Q = Quantity of milled rice obtained from a bag of paddy.
P = Average selling price of the milled rice (₦)..
Therefore, the Net Income for a processor equals NI=TR−TC
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is a non-parametric, linear programming-based frontier analysis
method that was originally developed to analyze the performance of organizations whose goals are not
limited to profit maximization. DEA uses a non-parametric non-stochastic piecewise linear production
frontier in estimating technical efficiency.
An input-oriented variable returns to scale DEA mode was used to calculate technical, allocative and scale
efficiency in rice processing. The variable returns to scale (VRS) specification allows for the estimation of
technical efficiency measures not confounded by scale efficiency effects.
Assuming that there is data available on K inputs and MMM outputs in each of the N decision-making
units (DMUs) and input and output vectors are represented by the vector x and y, respectively for the ith
processing. The data for all processing may be denoted by the K×N input matrix (X) and M×N output
matrix (Y). The envelope form of input-oriented VRS DEA model which is the most widely used is then
specified as follows:
Min
θλθ
Subject to:
St
−yi
+
Yλ≥
0
θxi−Xλ≥
0
N
I’λ
=1
λ≥
0
Where the value of θ obtained signifies the
efficiency score for the ith DMU. It will satisfy θ≤1
with a value of 1 indicating a point on the frontier
hence a technically efficient DMU. Thus, the linear
programming problem needs to be solved N times.
Total Cost (TC) is normally made up of two
components: Fixed Cost (FC) and Variable Cost
(VC). Fixed Costs are those costs which do not vary
with output; they are costs incurred on fixed items
or are not completely used up in one production
period. Fixed cost items in parboiling activities are
drums, buckets, baskets, shovel, drying tarpaulin,
etc. These items lose value over time due to wear
and tear. They are important in deriving net
income or profit. The variable costs are those cost
items that change with a change in output. For the
processors, the variable cost items include rice
paddy, transportation, and payment for services,
wood, water, etc.
Depreciation:
In estimating the depreciation rates
on fixed assets used during processing, the
straight-line method will be adopted.
Depreciation = (Initial Cost - Salvage Value) /
Life Span
This tool was used to achieve objective three.
Table 4.7 Net income of Rice Processing among Women in Lafia L.G.A. per bag
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
39
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Items
Unit Price (₦) Cost (₦) Value (₦)
COSTS
A. RETURNS
Quantity of polished rice
1
16,000
16,000
Quantity of hull sold per day
1
600
600
Total returns
16,600
B. Fixed cost (At 20% depreciation for 5 years)
Parboiling drum
1
800
Buckets
5
350
Drying Tarpaulin
2
48
Shovel
1
110
Total fixed cost
1,308
C. Total variable cost
Rice paddy
1
11,000
Water (liters)
50
50
Wood
5
200
Transportation
1
50
Milling
1
50
Loading and off-loading
1
50
Pre-cleaning
1
50
Market charges
1
10
Total variable cost
11,460
D. Total cost (B + C)
12,768
NET INCOME (A - D)
3,832
16,600
Average Net Rate of Return
= 30 kobo
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-Economic Characteristics of Women Rice Processors in Lafia Local Government Area.
Marital Status
Table 4.1 shows that most of the women processors are married. There are no single women among the
respondents. The percentage of widows is 2.2% while 97.18% of the women are married.
Table 4.1 Marital Status of sampled Women Processors
Marital Status Frequency Percentage
Widow
2
2.22
Married
88
97.18
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Age Distribution
Table 4.2 shows that 1.10% of the sampled respondents were between 21 and 30. About 89% of the
sampled women fell between the ages of 31 to 60 while only 10% were more than 60 years. The table
shows that most of the sampled women were in their middle age.
Table 4.2 Age distribution of the sampled women rice processors
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
40
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Age Limit Frequency Percentage
1-30
1
1.10
31-60
80
88.90
Above 60
9
10
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Religion
Table 4.3 shows that 67.78% are Muslims while 32.22% are Christians. There are no traditionalists
among the respondents. The significance of religion in rice processing is that Muslim women work on
Sundays and therefore make more sales every month than their Christian counterparts.
Table 4.3 Religion of the sampled women rice processors
Religion
Frequency Percentage
Islam
61
67.78
Christianity
29
32.22
Traditionalism 0
0.00
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Educational Level
Table 4.4 shows that majority of the women have no formal education and they constitute 81% of the
respondents. 16.65% of the women have primary school education while 2.2% have secondary school
education. None of them have tertiary institution education. This implies that adaptation of innovation
is likely to be difficult.
Table 4.4 Educational Level of the sampled women Rice Processors
Education Frequency Percentage
No formal
73
81
Primary
15
16.67
Secondary 2
2.33
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Household Sizes
Table 4.5 shows that among the respondents, 36.67% have between 4 to 5 persons in their households,
21.10% have between 6 to 7 persons, 26.67% have between 8 to 9 persons, and 15.56% have between
10 to 12 persons in their households. The household is a source of labor for a few of the women such as
those that are as old as 63 years, but for those that are middle-aged or below 30 years used paid labor.
Table 4.5 Household sizes of the sampled women Rice Processors
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
41
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Household Size Frequency Percentage
4-5
33
36.67
6-7
19
21.10
8-9
24
26.67
10-12
14
15.56
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Years of Experience
Table 4.6 shows that majority (88.8%) of the women processors have been processing for between 9 to
15 years. Only a few of them (11.11%) have been processing for between 4-8 years.
Table 4.6 Distribution of women processors based on their years of experience
Years of Experience Frequency Percentage
4-8
10
11.11
9-15
80
88.89
Total
90
100
Source: Field Survey data, 2008.
Inputs Used in Rice Processing
Parboiling Drums
The parboiling drums are indispensable in rice
processing; they are used for cooking the rice
paddy to a temperature not exceeding 70°C after
which the rice paddy is spread over the drying
tarpaulin to dry. The parboiling drums have
different sizes: small, medium, and big.
Rice Paddy
The rice paddy is the unpolished rice which has not
been dehusked in the milling machine. The rice
paddy is purchased from various rice farms in
Lafia. It is measured in bushels; 1 bag (100kg) of
rice paddy contains 5 bushels.
Buckets
Buckets and basins are used for fetching water
from the water tanks; the large ones are used and
are quite affordable.
Shovel
The shovel is used for packing rice and for
spreading rice over the drying tarpaulin. Each
processor usually owns one to five shovels
depending on the amount of rice paddy they
purchase.
Drying Tarpaulin
The parboiled rice paddy is spread under the sun
to dry on drying tarpaulins.
Water
Water is absolutely essential in rice processing. The
processors usually buy water in 50 liters jerry cans.
The price of water is determined by the presence
or absence of electricity; in the absence of
electricity, it becomes costly as water will be
pumped out by a generator, requiring the purchase
of fuel by the water seller, and this cost is
transferred to the processors.
Wood
Wood comes in different grades; the wood is for
making fire for parboiling the rice paddy.
Labor
Some men are paid for the task of loading and off-
loading rice paddy, and some women, who are
called ‘cookers,’ are paid to carry out the
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
42
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
parboiling.
Method of Processing
The method of processing employed by these
women is the small-scale husking and polishing.
This method produces clean marketable rice of fair
quality and is suitable for smallholders. It is more
efficient than the primitive method of pounding.
The milling machine used for dehusking is the
rubber roller-husker. This method has a
disadvantage of containing many broken rice
particles, which determines the price at which the
rice is sold. The less the amount of broken rice, the
higher the price of the polished rice.
COSTS AND RETURNS ANALYSIS
Cost of Parboiling Drum
The cost of parboiling drum is ₦4000, and its
depreciation is at 20% for 5 years.
Cost of Buckets
The price of buckets ranges from ₦350. It was
observed that buckets branded as "ok" plastics are
costlier and more durable. Depreciation is at 20%
for 5 years.
Cost of Shovel
The average price of a shovel is ₦200.
Cost of Rice Paddy
Rice paddy is measured in bushels; 1 bag contains
5 bushels (100kg). The price of a bag varies from
₦12,000.
Cost of Water
The cost of water is ₦1.00 per liter. In the absence
of electricity, the cost increases as water is pumped
out by a generator, which requires the purchase of
fuel by the water seller, and this cost is transferred
to the processors.
Cost of Wood
Wood
costs ₦150 per bundle.
Cost of Transportation
The average cost of conveying bags of rice paddy
from the farm gate to the rice mill is ₦50 per bag.
Cost of Milling
The average cost for milling one bag of rice paddy
is ₦50.
Labor
The co
st of labor is ₦100 per bag of rice paddy.
Drying Tarpaulin
The cost of drying tarpaulin is ₦120.
Net Income
The total return from processing one bag of rice
paddy is ₦16,600. The total fixed cost of processing
one bag of rice paddy is ₦1,3
08, while the total
variable cost is ₦11,460. This gives a total cost of
₦12,768. Therefore, the net income of processing
one bag of paddy rice is ₦3,832. The average rate of
return from processing one bag of rice paddy is 30
kobo, which means that for every naira invested in
rice processing by the women, 30 kobo was gained
per bag. This implies that rice processing among
women in the study area is profitable.
Table 4.7: Net Income of Rice Processing Among
Women in Lafia L.G.A. per Bag
The net income of rice processing among women in
Lafia Local Government Area is detailed as follows.
The total return from processing includes ₦16,000
from polished rice and ₦600 from hull sold per day,
giving a total return of ₦16,600. The fixed cost
components include ₦800
for a parboiling drum,
₦350 for buckets, ₦48 for drying tarpaulin, and
₦110 for a shovel. This results in a total fixed cost
of ₦1,308. The total variable cost is made up of
₦11,000 for rice paddy, ₦50 for water, ₦200 for
wood, ₦50 for transportation, ₦50 for milling, ₦50
for loading and off-
loading, ₦50 for pre
-cleaning,
and ₦10 for market charges, which sums up to
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
43
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
₦
11,460. The total cost (fixed and variable
combined) is ₦12,768, resulting in a net income of
₦3,832. The average net rate of return is 30 kob
o,
indicating a gain of 30 kobo for every naira
invested.
TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was used as an
analytical tool for calculating the technical
efficiency of small scale rice processing among
women in Lafia L.G.A.
The frequency distribution of efficiency estimates
obtained from the DEA is presented in table 4.8.
The result shows that 20% of the respondents
obtained 100% technical efficiency. 42.22% of the
women obtained between 60 to 99% while 37.78%
of the respondents obtained below 60% technical
efficiency. The minimum technical efficiency was
0.154 (15.4%). The maximum technical efficiency
was 0.100 (100%). The mean technical efficiency
for the sample was 0.570 (57%). This implies that
on the average, women rice processors have been
able to obtain 57% technical efficiency in rice
processing; therefore there is chance of increasing
processed rice output by 43% if the inefficient
women rice processors adopt the techniques and
strategies employed by the efficient women
processors.
Table 4.8 Technical Efficiency of rice processing among Women in Lafia L.G.A
Technical Efficiency Indices Frequency Percentage
0.154 - 0.323
18
20
0.324 - 0.500
16
17.78
0.600 - 0.790
20
22.22
0.890 - 0.990
18
20
1.00
18
20
Total
90
100
Source: Result of Analysis
Mean:
0.570
Minimum:
0.154
Maximum:
1.00
Problems Associated with Rice Processing
Among Women in the Study Area
Several problems are associated with rice
processing among women in the study area. The
most significant issue, mentioned by 87% of
respondents, is epileptic power supply. This
increases the cost of purchasing water and milling
rice due to the absence of electricity. The second
problem is the impact of foreign rice, which
reduces the demand for local rice. Poor price of
polished rice was identified as the third problem;
respondents noted that this was due to seasonal
and climatic fluctuations in the cost price of rice
paddy. The presence of impurities and dirt, such as
stones and large amounts of broken grains, was
also highlighted. This problem reduces the quality
and grade of the output, consequently lowering its
price. Other challenges include a lack of credit
facilities, which ranked as the fifth problem, and
the poor state of infrastructure, such as the
condition of rice mill buildings, which need
renovation to be suitable for storage. The least
mentioned problem was related to marriage and
children, which was not considered a major
constraint for most women.
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
44
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
Table 4.9: Problems Faced in Small-Scale Rice
Processing
The problems faced in small-scale rice processing,
ranked by frequency, include epileptic power
supply (87 respondents), the impact of foreign rice
(30 respondents), poor price of polished rice (27
respondents),
impurities
and
dirt
(26
respondents), lack of credit facilities (17
respondents), poor state of infrastructure (15
respondents), and marriage or children constraints
(2 respondents). Multiple responses were allowed,
leading to a total frequency exceeding the sample
size.
Table 4.9: Problems faced in small scale rice processing
Nature of Problem
Frequency Rank
Epileptic power supply
87
1
The problem of foreign rice
30
2
Poor price of polished rice
27
3
Impurities and dirt
26
4
Lack of credit facilities
17
5
Poor state of infrastructure
15
6
Problems related to marriage and children 2
7
Multiple responses were allowed; therefore total frequency exceeds the total sample size.
Summary, Conclusion, And Recommendations
SUMMARY
The findings of the study reveal that there were no
unmarried women among the respondents. The
percentage of widows was 2.2%, while 97.18% of
the women were married. The age distribution
shows that 1.10% of the women were 77 years or
less, with 88.90% aged between 28 and 60 years,
and only 10% aged 60 years or older. Religious
affiliations indicate that 67.78% of the respondents
were Muslims, while 32.22% were Christians. No
traditionalists were recorded among the
respondents. Educationally, the majority of the
women (81%) had no formal education, while
16.65% had primary school education, and only
2.2% had secondary school education. None had
tertiary education. In terms of experience, 88.8% of
the women had been processing rice for up to 15
years, while 11.11% had been processing for less
than nine years. Household size varied, with
36.67% having four to five persons, 21.10% having
six to seven persons, 26.67% having eight to nine
persons, and 15.56% having ten to twelve persons.
The inputs used in small-scale rice processing
include parboiling drums, rice paddy, buckets and
basins, shovels, drying tarpaulin, water, wood, and
labor. The cost analysis revealed that the total
return from processing one bag of rice paddy was
₦16,600, with a total fixed cost of ₦1,308 and a total
variable cost of ₦11,460, resulting in a total cost of
₦12,768. The net income for processing one bag of
paddy rice was ₦3,832.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings, it is concluded that small-
scale rice processing among women in the study
area is profitable. The profitability can be further
increased with the availability of more advanced
milling machines and the introduction of
innovations for the entire rice processing activities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Small-scale rice processing holds the potential to
increase the income of women rice processors in
the study area and improve their standard of living.
It is recommended that measures be taken to
enhance
technical
efficiency,
introduce
innovations, and sustain rice processing activities
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
45
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
in Lafia Local Government Area.
i. There should be deliberate effort to improve the
quality of rice processed by these women by
encouraging quality control, destoning, pearling or
polishing, and possibly glazing of milled rice in
order to match the quality of imported rice.
ii. Rice importation policy should be reviewed in
order to encourage local production and
processing so as to create opportunity for healthy
competition.
iii. Government and development agencies as well
as banks need to devise the means of increasing the
access of these women participants. This will
contribute to the acquisition of more modern
processing machines e.g., destoning machines,
polishing machines, etc., to improve the quality of
locally processed rice by women.
REFERENCES
1.
Agrawala, N.S. (1963). Parboiling of Rice
India. Bulletin Grain Technology (3).
2.
Ali, Nawab, and Ojha, T.P. (1976). Parboiling
in: E.V. Araullo D.B. de Padua, and Michael
Graham
(eds),
Rice
Post-Harvest
Technology. Ottawa: Canada International
Development Institute.
3.
Austin, J.E. (1992). Agro-Industrial Project
Analysis Critical Design Factors. Published
for World Bank EDI. Baltimore: John
Hopkins University Press.
4.
Barau, A.D. (1979). The Economics of Rice
Processing. A case study of small-scale rice
processing industry in Wukari LGA of
Gongola State. An unpublished M.Sc. Thesis,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
5.
Christiana O. (1991). Importance of Women
in Agriculture. NCRI publications. Pg. 1, Bida.
6.
FAO (2002). Food and Agriculture
Organization, No.30, Rome, FAO.
7.
Ferris, R.S.B. (1999). Implementing Market-
Oriented Research with Crop Processing
Techniques in: Ateroda, M.D., and J.M. Terr
(eds), Food Security and Crop Diversification
in SADC Countries. Ibadan: International
Institute for Tropical Agriculture.
8.
Golleti, F. (1994). The Changing Public Role
in a Rice Economy Approaching Self-
Sufficiency: The Case of Bangladesh.
Washington DC: International Food Policy
Research Institute (Report 98).
9.
Grist, D.H. (1975). Rice. Fifth Edition.
London: Longman Group Ltd.
10.
Ike, Nwachukwu. (2006). Soaking Rice in Hot
Water: Women, Not Men. NCRI publications,
Bida.
11.
Kill, M.C., and William, (1945). The
Nutritional Improvement of White Rice.
Bulletin of the Research Institute, No. 117.
12.
Maclean.
(2002).
Rice
Almanac.
International Rice Research Institute, China.
13.
Otuokosi, J.O., and Isitor, S.U. (1990).
Introduction to Agricultural Marketing and
Prices: Principles and Applications. Abuja:
Living Book Series G.U. Publication.
14.
Olayemi, J.K. (1973). Feasibility Study of an
Integrated Rice Plantation at Tada, Kwara
State. Ibadan: Nigeria Institute for Social
Economic Research (NISER).
15.
Olayide, S.O., and Heady, E.O. (1982).
Introduction to Agricultural Production
Economics. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press,
p. 308.
16.
Osifo, D.E. (1971). Economics of the Rice
Industry of Western Nigeria. Ibadan: Nigeria
Institute for Economics and Social Research
(NISER).
17.
Presidential Initiative (2002). Progress in
Implementation of Presidential Initiatives
THE USA JOURNALS
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS INNOVATIONS (ISSN- 2693-0811)
VOLUME 06 ISSUE11
46
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajmei
on Rice, Cassava, and Vegetable Oil
Development Programme.
18.
Ruiten, H.V. (1976). Hulling in: E.V. Araullo,
D.B., and Graham Michael (eds), Rice Post-
Harvest Technology. Ottawa: Canada
International Development Research Center.
