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ABSTRACT
In the approach to solving the problem of antonymy, two aspects of its study have been outlined. Antonymy can only
be considered within the framework of linguistic phenomena, and in this case, the origins of antonymy lie in the
features of the functioning of linguistic units in the process of communication, that is, in speech activity. On the other
hand, antonymy can be considered in the aspect of the logical-semantic correlation of concepts denoted by linguistic
units. A special place in the Russian language is occupied by antonyms - words that are opposite in meaning.
Antonymy reflects an essential aspect of systemic relations in Russian vocabulary. Modern linguistics considers
synonymy and antonymy as extreme and borderline cases of content interchangeability and opposition of words.
While synonymous relations are characterized by semantic similarity, antonymic relations are characterized by
semantic difference. The existence of antonyms in language lies in the nature of our perception of reality in all its
contradictory complexity, in the unity and struggle of opposites. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts
they denote, are not only opposites, but also closely related.
KEYWORDS
Contextual antonyms, criterion, distinguishing antonymy linguistic phenomenon, comparison, oxymorons, semantic
relationships, derivative, speech affiliation, relatively opposite, expression.
INTRODUCTION
Antonyms (Gr. anti - against + onym - name) are words
that differ in sound and have directly opposite
meanings: Truth is a lie, good is evil, speak - be silent.
[1] Antonyms usually belong to the same type of words
and pairs of forms. Antonymy in the language is
presented more narrowly than synonymy: antonymic
Research Article
ANTONYMIC NESTS IN TOPONYMIC SYSTEM OF MODERN RUSSIAN
Submission Date:
October 15, 2024,
Accepted Date:
October 20, 2024,
Published Date:
October 25, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/philological-crjps-05-10-06
Velyieva Susanna Raipovna
Jizzakh Branch Of National University Of Uzbekistan Named After Mirzo Ulugbek, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://masterjournals.
com/index.php/crjps
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
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relations consist only in words correlated according to
some attribute - qualitative, quantitative, temporal,
spatial - and related as mutually exclusive terms to the
same category of objective reality: beautiful - ugly,
much - small, morning - evening, remote - approach.[7]
Modern linguistics sometimes speaks of contextual
antonyms, that is, words that are opposite in a certain
context: "wolves and sheep." The polarity of the
meanings of such words is not fixed in the language,
their opposition is of an individually authoritarian
nature. The writer can reveal opposite qualities in
different terms and contrast them in speech on this
basis not a mother, but a daughter; sunlight -
moonlight; a year is a lifetime. The words that name
such terms, however, are not antonyms, since their
contrast is not reproduced in speech, but occurs from
time to time. Thus, the most important criterion for
distinguishing antonymy as a linguistic phenomenon is
the systemic relations of words in the lexicon. A
systematic approach allows you to penetrate into the
depth of this phenomenon, identify its patterns,
explain the features of the use of antonyms in the
language. The correct use of antonyms in the language
helps to reveal the contradictory nature of objects,
phenomena, qualities. Antonyms are the main means
of forming antithesis (Gr. antithesis - contrast) - a
stylistic figure of contrast, a sharp contrast of
concepts, definitions, images, states.
The contradiction can be simple (singular): The strong
are always powerless to blame, but the complex
(polynomial): we hate and love by chance, we don’t
sacrifice either evil or love, and a certain secret
coldness reigns in the soul when the fire boils in the
blood. A complex antithesis involves several antonymic
pairs. The opposite is contrast, which consists in
negating the opposite qualities of the object: The
gentleman sitting in the carriage is neither handsome
nor bad looking, neither too fat nor too thin; not too
old, but not too young either. Such a comparison of
antonyms with negation emphasizes the mediocrity of
the described person, his lack of bright features, clearly
visible signs. This use of antonyms makes it possible to
single out such concepts that do not have an exact
name in the language: If suddenly a friend was not a
friend and not an enemy, then it is. The comparison of
antonyms in the statement gives special importance to
each of the objects to which they refer, which
increases the expressiveness of speech: Mountains
separate countries, but unite people; the character of
athletes is brought up not by the triumph of victories,
but by the bitterness of defeat. In addition, in such
cases, antonyms receive a logical accent, emphasizing
the semantic centers of the sentence; cf.: Life is long
enough to correct old delusions, but not short enough
not to fall into new ones. Antonyms of popular
expressions are especially laconic and aphoristic: The
houses are new, but the prejudices are old; The darker
the night, the brighter the stars; So few roads are
taken, so many mistakes are made. The phenomenon
of antonymy is also used in oxymoron (Gr. oxymoron -
funny and stupid). This technique consists of
combining contrasting lexical units to represent a new,
unusual concept: "Bad good man" (movie title). Some
oxymorons are built on true antonyms (the beginning
of the end); others - in words with opposite meanings,
combined as defining and defining: "A living corpse";
"Optimistic tragedy"; magnificent extinction of nature.
The words used in such oxymorons cannot be called
antonyms in the strict sense, as they refer to different
kinds of words. In an ironic context, one antonym can
be used instead of another: Where, wise head, do you
wander? The adjective "wise" refers to the island, and
we understand that behind this definition is its
antonym - stupidity. The use of a word in the opposite
sense is called an antiphase (Gr. apti - against + phrase
- expression). In everyday colloquial speech, antiphase
is often resorted to; at the same time, the absent one
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jokingly says: "How attentive you are!" to the villain
“How nice you are!”
A special place in the Russian language is occupied by
antonyms - words that are opposite in meaning.
Antonymy reflects an essential aspect of systemic
relations in Russian vocabulary. Modern linguistics
considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme and
borderline cases of content interchangeability and
opposition of words.[10] While synonymous relations
are characterized by semantic similarity, antonymic
relations are characterized by semantic difference. The
existence of antonyms in language lies in the nature of
our perception of reality in all its contradictory
complexity, in the unity and struggle of opposites.
Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts
they denote, are not only opposites but also closely
related.
Antonyms are used not only to express
contrasts. Antonyms can show the vastness of space-
time boundaries: From the southern mountains to the
northern seas; Troops march day and night; they
become unmotivated, the fullness of the reflection of
phenomena, the facts of reality: the rich and the poor
sleep, the wise and the stupid, the good and the bad.
Antonyms convey the alternation of images observed
in life, the alternation of actions, events: Here pure
Zarina flashed in the distance, flashed and came out;
Humble yourself. And we'll fight. And again, you won't
sleep. We will turn our insomnia into a solid white
night. Antonyms are perceived in the language against
the background of their semantic correlates due to
stable connections in the lexical system of the
language. Therefore, when we meet this or that word
with an antonym, we unwittingly compare these
related words. For example, in Gogol - How did our city
seem to you? - Manilova said: "Did you like it there?"
Chichikov replied: "It is a very beautiful city, and I had a
very pleasant time: the society is very polite.
Antonyms, allocated to a separate lexical category on
the basis of common logical grounds, at the same time
are not homogeneous in their structural and semantic
properties, they can be classified according to different
grounds. “The richness and diversity of Russian
antonymy, its typology are fully revealed when
considering the classification of antonyms. The most
significant are the structural, semantic and functional-
derivative classification of words with opposite
meanings”. Antonyms in terms of structure, semantics,
functioning are such a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon that they can be the object of a number
of classifications for various reasons. Antonyms are
used not only to express contrasts. Antonyms can
show the vastness of space-time boundaries: From the
southern mountains to the northern seas; Troops
march day and night; they become unmotivated, the
fullness of the reflection of phenomena, the facts of
reality: the rich and the poor sleep, the wise and the
stupid, the good and the bad. Antonyms convey the
alternation of images observed in life, the alternation
of actions, events.
According to the main parameters, the following types
of antonyms are distinguished:
1.
Different- root \ single- root.
2.
True / false (quasi-antonyms).
3.
Contrary / contradictory (complementary).
4.
Proportionate / disproportionate.
5.
General language (usual) / author's (speech,
occasional).
The partial classification of antonyms intersects with
these, and in the functional aspect, the intersection of
all types of classifications is possible. The semantic
relationships of antonyms are very diverse. This
diversity is determined, first of all, by the fact that they
are formed on the basis of a huge number of specific
semantic oppositions within a large number of lexico-
semantic and thematic groups of words of all parts of
speech involved in the sphere of antonymy. The first
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attempt to generalize the semantic relations of
antonymy. [7]
One of the essential semantic classifications of
antonyms is their division on a logical basis into contra-
and
contradictory.
“Antonymic
pairs
(unlike
synonyms) differ not in stylistic and emotional-
evaluative features, but almost exclusively in
conceptual ones. Their logical basis is incompatible
concepts, that is, concepts whose volumes do not
match. Incompatible concepts are of two types
–
opposite (counter) and contradictory (contradictory).
Despite the fact that the above quotation presents a
strict, more logical than linguistic approach to
antonymy, the distinction between contra- and
contradictory antonyms is presented correctly there. A
contradiction (contradiction) is a relationship between
concepts, of which one reflects the presence of any
features in an object, and the other reflects their
absence.
In
other
words,
a
contradiction
(contradiction) is a relation between positive and
negative concepts.
In the linguistic literature, numerous classifications of
antonyms are presented, carried out on the following
grounds: semantics, functioning, structure, part-of-
speech. The first two aspects are sufficiently
developed in Russian studies / see. Works by Yu. D.
Apresyan, JI. A. Novikov, V. A. Vvedenskaya and many
others. Others/. In the aspect of the tasks set in this
article, two other bases for the classification of
antonyms are of particular importance: structure and
part-of-speech affiliation. According to their structure,
antonyms are divided into two types: heterogeneous
and single-root. Different-root antonyms are also
called lexical, and single-root antonyms are called
derivational. Both types of antonyms are very
widespread in the field of all main parts of speech. [1]
Heterogeneous antonyms are best represented in
adjectives and verbs, they also occupy a significant
place in nouns. As for adverbs, here they are
represented by a relatively small group. In
prepositions, pronouns, particles, only antonyms of
different roots are found. Antonymy of words with
different roots as a type of lexical paradigm is the most
studied type of antonymic relations in Russian studies,
as well as in linguistics in general.
However, if we take into account the specifics of the
Russian language as "grammatical" according to the
classification of F. de Saussure, that is, a language with
a significant predominance of motivated (derivative)
words over unmotivated (non-derivative), then it
should be stated that the most important part of
antonymy in the Russian language is word-formation
(antonymy of derivative words). The word-formation
of the Russian language has a rich arsenal of means for
expressing word-forming antonyms of various types
The special status of derivative antonyms is that, unlike
non-derivative ones, they are included not only in the
lexical, but also in the word-formation system, being
actively and with the need to be realized against the
background of the original (formative) words as word-
forming and semantically marked members of the
opposition.[8]
As for the forming word, as an unmarked one, it does
not show a strong «gravitation» to its derivatives,
remaining within the proper lexical system and
representing only the starting point of the word-
formation chain. Any derivative, especially acting as a
generating one, is more closely and necessarily
connected with the previous ones and more optionally
with the subsequent words of the word-formation
chain. The term «word-forming antonymy» was first
characterized in the studies of L. I. Tikhonov and S. A.
Emelyanova. In the works of L. L. Varaksin. J.I. L.
Novikov, M. R. Lvov, N. M. Shansky, L. V. Vvedenskaya
and others use the term “single
-
root antonyms”.
However, single-root means «having only one root» (cf.
Multi-root), so it would be more correct to use the
adjective «single-root», which means «having the same
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root» Most often, derivational antonyms are simply
(without any reservations) included in lexical
antonymy. For instance. L. A. Novikov in the article
“Notes on lexical antonymy” writes: “Antonymy in its
most pronounced, “pure” form
is represented by high-
quality adjectives and words semantically correlated
with them (young - old, youth - old age; cultural -
uncultured, culturally - uncivilized; true - false, true -
false, true - a lie; married - single), as well as verbs and
correlative words with them in meaning, denoting the
opposite direction of actions in the broad sense of the
word (raise - lower, rise - descent; enter - exit, entry-
exit). In the above reasoning, derivational antonyms
are not distinguished from lexical ones. The term
“word
-
forming antonyms” itself is “problematic” to a
certain extent, because both derivative and non-
derivative antonyms are full-fledged lexical units,
however, it seems to us quite appropriate, since the
semantics of a derivative word, due to its motivation,
the presence of an internal form, differs from the
semantics of a non-derivative one. The distinction
between lexical and derivational antonyms has
become generally accepted, but the question of the
predominance of one or another type of antonyms in
the Russian language is debatable. Derivational
antonymy plays an important role in the vocabulary of
the Russian language. “In the Russian language, word
formation plays an important role in the systemic
organization of antonymy. The system of antonymy
consists of two unequal parts
–
lexical and derivational.
Moreover, the purely lexical part is relatively small.
Most of them are word-building antonyms: in modern
Russian they are about 70%. The main means of
expressing antonymy are derivational affixe
s”
Derivative antonyms are antonyms that have arisen as
a result of derivation. They are formed with the help of
word-building means: 1) prefixes; 2) suffixes, in their
formation antonymic components in compound words
are also used. Derivational antonyms include, for
example, verbal derivatives of one stage of word
formation with antonymous prefixes: enter
–
exit,
undercook
–
digest, bind
–
untie, etc., as well as
adjectives with antonymous formants: mustachioed
–
beardless, horned
–
hornless, happy unhappy, well-
born
–
rootless, etc. However, word-building antonyms
are not only antonyms within a word-building pair of
cognate words in which antonymy finds its morphemic
expression, but also “reflected” antonyms and
cooperatives at the same stage of word formation. The
variety of types of word-building antonyms indicates
their significant role in the systematization of the
lexical composition of the Russian language, and in
relation to the main complex unit of word formation,
the word-formation nest (SH), two main types can be
distinguished: word-building antonyms within one SG
(cheerful
–
sad, beautiful
–
ugly, - go out, mustachioed
–
beardless) antonyms connecting different forming
antonymic nests: north
–
south, northerner
–
southerner, northerner
–
southerner, northern
–
southern; wide
–
narrow, etc.
Antonyms (Gr. anti - against + onym - name) are words
that differ in sound and have directly opposite
meanings: Truth is a lie, good is evil, speak - be silent
(Apresyan, 1969). Antonyms usually belong to the
same type of words and pairs of forms. Antonymy in
the language is presented more narrowly than
synonymy: antonymic relations consist only in words
correlated according to some attribute - qualitative,
quantitative, temporal, spatial - and related as mutually
exclusive terms to the same category of objective
reality.[8]
According word-formation nests play an important
role in the antonymic organization of vocabulary.
However, other types of word-formation antonymy
play an important role in the systemic organization of
vocabulary, creating inside the SG a kind of antonymic
sub-nests, in which, in addition to the common root, an
additional connection of lexemes arises within a single,
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but at the same time polarly bifurcated concept, which
is typical for antonymy. Reflected antonymy can also
be observed inside the word-formation nest, for
example, beautiful
–
ugly.
The main tool for describing the generation of
derivative antonyms and, at the same time, a possible
system of forms for expressing derivative antonymy
are word-formation nests that are opposite in source
words. The opposite of the initial words, according to
the laws of semantic reflection, is reproduced in their
derivatives. However, there is no complete, «mirror»
and symmetrical relationship of opposites in the
derivatives of compatible nests. An antonymic nest is a
correlation of two word-building nests, each of which
includes only such words that have corresponding
antonyms in the opposite nest. An antonymic nest, in
terms of the number of its members, is less than the
sum of lexemes of cognate words that make up its
nests, since not all of their components have the
opposite word in another nest.
The semantic relationships of antonyms are very
diverse. This diversity is determined, first of all, by the
fact that they are formed on the basis of a huge
number of specific semantic oppositions within a large
number of lexica-semantic and thematic groups of
words of all parts of speech involved in the sphere of
antonymy. [8]
A derivational nest is a derived word, the unit
(element) of an antonymous nest is a correlation of
words opposite in meaning (antonymic pair). The
structure of the antonymic nest implements «principle
of complementarity», which is reflected in the
antonymy theorem as part of the semantic field. The
reduction of single-root words opposite in the original
words as an expression of one of the categorical
lexical-semantic properties (antonymy) gives a
qualitatively new unit in which all correlative words
have their countertrend with the meaning of contrast
or complementarity. Such a unit is an antonymic nest.
So, an antonymic nest is essentially a structural union
of fragments of two word-forming nests, most often
headed by initial antonymic lexemes. Antonymic nests
implement the specifics of the organization of
antonymy as a lexical paradigm (but in comparison
with synonymy)
–
the binary principle of opposition. At
the same time, antonymic nests are characterized by
asymmetry, which manifests itself primarily in the
optional antonymic oppositions of derivatives of a
certain level of antonymous derivational nests. The
role of the original words of the antonymic nest in this
case is twofold: on the one hand, these are derivatives
of the original verb «мотать» on the other hand, these
are the words that head the antonymic nest and
explicating the word-formation and semantic
connections of antonym derivatives with all derivatives
of this word-forming nest. As the results of the
analysis of antonymic nests show, the nests of the
original opposite words, being essentially similar, are at
the same time largely asymmetric: the number of
derivatives in them does not match, some members of
one nest do not find an antonymic countertrend in
another and often enter into contrast relations with
the word of another nests formed by derivatives of the
same type at one or another level of derivation in many
cases do not represent antonyms as words that are
relatively opposite in meaning. The word-building
nests of the original opposite words generate
antonyms "in the possibility", providing forms of
expression of contrast, but the actual reflected
antonymy is established on the basis of the semantic
criterion of this semantic phenomenon as the ultimate
restriction by each other's qualitative or directed
words. Due to the unity of lexical and word-forming
semantics in the word and general patterns in semantic
and word-forming derivation, the expansion of the
nest of antonyms is accompanied by the
corresponding development of reflected antonymy as
a lexical phenomenon in the field of derivative
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vocabulary. The semantic process of reflecting the
original antonymy in the system of derived words, i.e.
its distribution, introduction into their semantics, gives
rise to branched antonymic word-formation nests.
According to part-of-speech affiliation, antonymic
nests are divided into denominative (non-substantive
and o-adjective), verbal and adverbial. It should be
noted that the most productive types of antonymous
nests are adjective and verbal, in accordance with the
two main types of opposition in the language:
qualitative opposition and multidirectional actions.
The special status of derivative antonyms is
that, unlike non-derivative ones, they are included not
only in the lexical but also in the word-formation
system, being actively and with the need to be realized
against the background of the original (formative)
words as word-forming and semantically marked
members of the opposition.[9]
CONCLUSION
Antonyms, the expression of the opposite in the
language, play an important role in the lexical system
of
the
language.[2]
Antonyms
are
usually
characterized by contact use in certain contexts,
where their most important functions are revealed.
The use of antonyms underlies various stylistic devices.
Antonyms give special meaning to objects and
concepts. Antonyms contribute to the disclosure of
the contradictory nature of objects, phenomena. The
stylistic functions of antonyms are not limited to the
expression of contrast. Antonyms help us show the
fullness of exciting phenomena. The richness and
variety of antonyms in the Russian language creates
unlimited expressive possibilities and at the same time
obliges us to take seriously and thoughtfully the use of
these contrasting words in the language.
REFERENCES
1.
Apresyan, Yu. D. (1969). The Structure of
Modern English: A Linguistic Analysis. Moscow:
Nauka.
2.
Apresyan,
Yu.
D.
(1974).
Systematic
Lexicography. Moscow: Nauka.
3.
Bragarnik-Stankevich O. Language systemic
relations of lexical units (synonymic series,
antonymic
pairs,
lexical-semantic
fields,
thematic groups) //The Scientific Heritage.
–
2020.
–
№. 46
-5 (46).
–
С. 14
-17.
4.
Brodsky I. N. Negative statements. L., 1973
5.
Derbyshire W. W. Leveraging Your Russian with
Roots, Prefixes, and Suffuxes //Canadian
Slavonic Papers.
–
2002.
–
Т. 44. –
№. 3/4. –
С.
320.
6.
Lehrer A., Lehrer K. Antonymy //Linguistics and
philosophy.
–
1982.
–
С. 483
-501.
7.
Novikov, L. A. (1972). Notes on lexical
antonymy. Russian Linguistics, 3(4), 97-112.
8.
Tikhonov, L. I., & Emelyanova, S. A. (1979).
Word
formation
antonymy.
Moscow:
Prosveshchenie.
9.
Ufimtseva, A. A. (1985). Lexical semantics and
its structure. Moscow: Nauka.
