Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
1
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
A
BSTRACT
The demand for sustainable and eco-friendly methods for nanomaterial synthesis has spurred significant
interest in biomimetic approaches. Among these, the use of viruses as templates for the controlled
synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has emerged as a particularly promising area. This review
provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the biomimetic synthesis of AgNPs utilizing
various viral platforms. It highlights the unique advantages offered by viruses, such as their well-defined
nanostructures, self-assembly capabilities, genetic programmability, and biocompatibility, which enable
precise control over the size, shape, and morphology of the synthesized AgNPs. The review discusses the
mechanisms involved in virus-mediated AgNP formation, including the reduction of silver ions and
subsequent nucleation and growth on the viral surface. Furthermore, it explores the diverse range of
viruses employed, such as bacteriophages (e.g., M13, T7), plant viruses (e.g., Tobacco mosaic virus), and
even animal viruses, and their specific contributions to templating different AgNP architectures. The
review also delves into the expanding applications of these virus-templated AgNPs in fields like
antimicrobial agents, biosensing, catalysis, and targeted drug delivery, owing to their enhanced
monodispersity, stability, and biocompatibility. Finally, it addresses the challenges and future directions in
Research Article
Biomimetic Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Viruses:
A Review of Recent Advancements
Submission Date:
April 03,
2025,
Accepted Date:
May 02, 2025,
Published Date:
June 01, 2025
Dr. Chittaranjan Patra
Senior Scientist, Institute of Life Sciences (ILS), Bhubaneswar, India
Dr. Mansoor Ali Syed
Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Millia Islamia University, India
Journal
Website:
http://sciencebring.co
m/index.php/ijasr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
2
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
this evolving field, including scalability, optimization of synthesis parameters, and ensuring long-term
stability and in vivo efficacy for biomedical applications.
K
EYWORDS
Biomimetic Synthesis, Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs), Viruses, Viral Templates, Green Synthesis,
Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine, Bacteriophages, Plant Viruses, Self-Assembly, Controlled Synthesis,
Antimicrobial Agents, Biosensing, Catalysis.
I
NTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology, a rapidly expanding field,
involves the manipulation of materials at the
nanoscale (typically 1 to 100 nanometers) to
create novel structures, devices, and systems with
unique properties. Among the myriad of
nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, particularly
silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), have garnered
significant attention due to their exceptional
physical, chemical, and biological attributes [1, 3,
5]. AgNPs exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial
activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses,
making them highly promising candidates for
applications
in
medicine,
environmental
remediation, and consumer products [1, 3, 5, 7,
14, 15]. Their virucidal properties, in particular,
are of increasing interest given the global
challenges posed by viral infections [14, 15].
Traditionally, AgNPs have been synthesized using
physical and chemical methods, which often
involve
harsh
reducing
agents,
high
temperatures, and toxic solvents [6]. While these
methods offer control over size and shape, they
pose significant environmental concerns and can
lead to the adsorption of toxic chemicals on the
nanoparticle
surface,
limiting
their
biocompatibility and applicability in sensitive
areas like biomedicine [1, 3]. This has spurred a
growing interest in "green synthesis" approaches,
which utilize biological entities such as plants,
fungi, bacteria, and viruses as environmentally
friendly alternatives for nanoparticle fabrication
[1, 2, 3]. These methods are appealing due to their
simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and reduced
environmental footprint, aligning with the
principles of sustainable chemistry [1, 3].
Within the realm of biological synthesis, the use
of viruses and virus-like particles (VLPs) stands
out as a particularly innovative and versatile
strategy [8, 9]. Viruses, by their very nature, are
highly organized nanoscale structures with well-
defined geometries, modifiable surfaces, and the
ability to self-assemble. These inherent
properties make them ideal templates, reducing
agents, or scaffolds for the controlled synthesis of
inorganic nanoparticles, including AgNPs [8, 9].
The precise arrangement of proteins on the viral
capsid can provide specific binding sites for metal
ions and facilitate their reduction into
nanoparticles with desired sizes and shapes.
Furthermore, the genetic modifiability of viruses
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
3
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
allows for the engineering of their surfaces to
tailor the synthesis process and enhance the
functionality of the resulting nanoparticles [8].
This review aims to provide a comprehensive
overview of the current advancements in virus-
mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles. It will
delve into the diverse types of viruses employed,
the underlying mechanisms governing the
biomineralization
process,
the
unique
characteristics of the synthesized AgNPs, and
their potential applications, particularly in the
biomedical field. By exploring this biomimetic
approach, we seek to highlight its advantages,
challenges, and future prospects in the
sustainable
production
of
functional
nanomaterials.
M
ETHODS
As a comprehensive review article, the
methodology employed involved a systematic
literature search and synthesis of peer-reviewed
publications focusing on the virus-mediated
synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The primary
objective was to identify and analyze research
that utilizes intact viral particles or virus-like
particles (VLPs) as templates, reducing agents, or
scaffolds for the formation of AgNPs.
Literature Search Strategy
The literature search was conducted across major
scientific databases, including but not limited to
PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google
Scholar. Keywords and phrases used in various
combinations
included
"virus-mediated
synthesis,"
"viral
nanoparticles,"
"silver
nanoparticles," "AgNPs," "biomimetic synthesis,"
"green
synthesis,"
"plant
viruses,"
"bacteriophages," "nanobiotechnology," and
"antiviral activity." The search was not limited by
publication year to capture the historical
development and recent advancements in the
field.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Studies were included if they explicitly described
the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using viral
templates or components, detailed the
experimental procedures, characterized the
resulting nanoparticles, and discussed their
properties or potential applications. Review
articles and book chapters were also considered
for broader context and theoretical frameworks.
Studies focusing solely on the antiviral properties
of pre-synthesized AgNPs without involving viral
synthesis, or those using other biological entities
(e.g., bacteria, fungi, plants) without direct viral
involvement, were generally excluded, except
where they provided essential background on
green synthesis or AgNP applications.
Data Extraction and Synthesis
Relevant information was extracted from selected
articles, including:
•
The type of virus or VLP used (e.g., plant
virus, bacteriophage).
•
The specific experimental conditions for
AgNP synthesis (e.g., silver salt concentration, pH,
temperature, incubation time).
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
4
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
•
The proposed mechanism of AgNP
formation (e.g., surface protein reduction,
templating effect).
•
The characteristics of the synthesized
AgNPs (e.g., size, shape, stability, crystallinity),
often
determined
by
techniques
like
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM),
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), UV-Vis
spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS).
•
Reported applications or potential uses of
the virus-synthesized AgNPs.
The extracted data were then synthesized
thematically to identify common trends, unique
approaches,
advantages,
challenges,
and
emerging applications of virus-mediated AgNP
synthesis. This systematic approach allowed for a
comprehensive overview of the field, highlighting
key findings and gaps in current knowledge.
R
ESULTS
The comprehensive review of the literature on
virus-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles
revealed a diverse array of viral platforms
employed and distinct mechanisms facilitating
the formation of AgNPs. The synthesized
nanoparticles often exhibit unique characteristics
influenced by the viral template.
Diverse Viral Platforms for AgNP Synthesis
Research indicates that both plant viruses and
bacteriophages have been successfully utilized as
templates or reducing agents for AgNP synthesis
[8, 9].
Plant Viruses
Plant viruses are particularly attractive due to
their high yield, ease of production, and genetic
tractability [8]. Several plant viruses have been
explored:
•
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV): TMV, a rod-
shaped virus, has been extensively used due to its
high aspect ratio and ability to self-assemble. Its
capsid proteins can provide nucleation sites for
silver ions, leading to the formation of AgNPs on
its surface or within its interior.
•
Potato virus X (PVX): PVX, a filamentous
plant viral nanoparticle, has been demonstrated
for its potential in various biomedical
applications, including doxorubicin delivery in
cancer therapy, suggesting its utility as a versatile
nanocarrier for AgNPs as well [11]. The ordered
arrangement of proteins on its surface can guide
the formation of AgNPs.
•
Cowpea Mosaic Virus (CPMV): CPMV is an
isometric virus that can be genetically engineered
to display specific peptides on its surface, which
can then be used to bind and reduce metal ions,
leading to the formation of highly controlled
AgNPs.
•
Brome mosaic virus (BMV): BMV-like
particles have been explored as nanocarriers,
including for siRNA delivery, indicating their
structural stability and potential for surface
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
5
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
modification, which can be leveraged for AgNP
synthesis and subsequent functionalization [10].
These plant viruses offer advantages such as non-
infectivity in humans and animals, ease of large-
scale production in plants, and the ability to be
genetically modified to introduce specific amino
acid residues that can act as reducing agents or
binding sites for silver ions [8, 9].
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, also
present a promising platform for AgNP synthesis
due to their well-defined structures and self-
assembly properties.
•
M13 Bacteriophage: The filamentous M13
phage has been engineered to display specific
peptides that can bind and reduce silver ions,
leading to the formation of AgNPs along its length.
Its high aspect ratio and ability to be produced in
large quantities make it suitable for templated
synthesis.
•
T4 Bacteriophage: While less commonly
reported for direct AgNP synthesis, the T4
bacteriophage's complex structure and robust
nature suggest potential for templating or
encapsulating nanoparticles.
•
General
Bacteriophage
Applications:
Studies have shown the self-assembly of silver
nanoparticles with bacteriophages, indicating
their potential for creating hybrid nanostructures
with combined antimicrobial properties [12].
Mechanisms of Virus-Mediated AgNP Synthesis
The synthesis of AgNPs using viruses typically
involves a "biomineralization" process, where the
viral components facilitate the reduction of silver
ions
(Ag$^+)toelementalsilver(Ag^0$)
and
subsequent
nucleation
and
growth
of
nanoparticles. The primary mechanisms include:
1.
Templating Effect: The highly ordered
protein capsid of the virus acts as a scaffold or
template, directing the nucleation and growth of
AgNPs. The specific arrangement of amino acid
residues on the viral surface can provide
preferential binding sites for silver ions,
influencing the size and shape of the resulting
nanoparticles [8].
2.
Reduction by Viral Components: Certain
amino acid residues within the viral proteins (e.g.,
cysteine, lysine, histidine, methionine) possess
functional groups (e.g., thiol, amine, carboxyl)
that can act as reducing agents, converting
Ag$^+$ to Ag$^0$ [1, 3]. The precise location and
density of these residues on the viral surface can
dictate the nucleation and growth kinetics of the
AgNPs.
3.
Encapsulation/Loading: In some cases,
AgNPs can be synthesized within the internal
cavity of isometric virus particles or loaded onto
their surfaces after synthesis, providing a
protective shell and facilitating targeted delivery
[10, 11].
Characteristics of Virus-Synthesized AgNPs
AgNPs synthesized using viral templates often
exhibit distinct characteristics:
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
6
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
•
Controlled Size and Shape: The highly
ordered structure of viruses can lead to the
formation of AgNPs with relatively uniform sizes
and shapes, which is crucial for their functional
properties [8]. For instance, rod-shaped viruses
can
template
anisotropic
(non-spherical)
nanoparticles.
•
Enhanced Stability: The viral capsid
proteins can act as natural capping agents,
preventing aggregation of the newly formed
nanoparticles and enhancing their colloidal
stability in solution [3].
•
Biocompatibility: As the synthesis occurs
under mild, physiological conditions without
harsh chemicals, the resulting AgNPs are
generally more biocompatible and less toxic,
making them suitable for biomedical applications
[3].
•
Functionalization Potential: The surface of
viral nanoparticles can be further modified or
engineered to attach targeting ligands,
therapeutic molecules, or other functional
groups, creating multifunctional nanoplatforms
[8, 9, 10, 11].
D
ISCUSSION
The burgeoning field of virus-mediated synthesis
of silver nanoparticles represents a significant
leap forward in green nanotechnology, offering
an environmentally benign and highly versatile
approach to fabricating these important
nanomaterials. The results of this review
underscore the unique advantages that viral
nanoparticles (VNPs) bring to the table,
positioning them as powerful tools for
sustainable and controlled AgNP production.
Advantages of Virus-Mediated Synthesis
The primary appeal of using viruses for AgNP
synthesis lies in its eco-friendliness and
sustainability [1, 3]. Unlike conventional chemical
methods that often generate toxic byproducts and
require harsh conditions, virus-mediated
synthesis operates under mild, aqueous
conditions, minimizing environmental impact
and reducing the need for hazardous reagents.
This aligns perfectly with the growing demand for
green chemistry principles in materials science.
Furthermore, the inherent structural precision
and genetic manipulability of viruses offer
unparalleled control over the resulting AgNPs [8].
The highly organized protein capsids of viruses
act as natural templates, dictating the nucleation
and growth of silver nanoparticles with
remarkable control over their size, shape, and
even spatial arrangement. This level of control is
difficult to achieve with other green synthesis
methods. The ability to genetically engineer viral
surfaces allows for the introduction of specific
amino acid sequences that can enhance silver ion
binding, act as stronger reducing agents, or
facilitate subsequent functionalization of the
AgNPs for targeted applications [8, 9]. This
tailorability opens doors for creating highly
specific and efficient nanostructures.
The biocompatibility of virus-synthesized AgNPs
is another significant advantage. Since the
process occurs in a biological milieu, the resulting
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
7
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
nanoparticles are often free from toxic chemical
residues, making them more suitable for
biomedical applications where toxicity is a major
concern [3]. The viral capsid itself can provide a
protective and biocompatible coating for the
AgNPs, enhancing their stability in biological
systems.
Finally, the scalability of VNP production,
particularly for plant viruses, offers a promising
route for large-scale, cost-effective synthesis of
AgNPs. Plants can be engineered to produce large
quantities of viral biomass, which can then be
used for nanoparticle synthesis, making the
process economically viable for industrial
applications.
Challenges and Limitations
Despite the compelling advantages, virus-
mediated AgNP synthesis is not without its
challenges. One significant hurdle is achieving
high purity and yield of the synthesized
nanoparticles. While viruses can act as templates,
optimizing the reaction conditions to ensure
complete reduction of silver ions and efficient
nanoparticle formation without excessive
aggregation remains an area of active research
[13]. Reproducibility across different batches can
also be a concern, requiring meticulous control
over experimental parameters.
Scaling up the production from laboratory to
industrial levels presents practical difficulties,
including the efficient recovery and purification
of viral particles and the subsequent large-scale
synthesis and separation of AgNPs. While plant-
based production offers scalability for viruses, the
subsequent
nanoparticle
synthesis
and
purification steps need further optimization.
Another consideration, particularly for in vivo
biomedical applications, is the potential
immunogenicity of viral components. Although
many viral nanoparticles are engineered to be
non-infectious and have low immunogenicity,
repeated administration or specific viral types
could still elicit an immune response. This
necessitates careful selection of the viral platform
and potential surface modifications to minimize
immunogenicity.
Furthermore,
a
deeper
understanding of the precise mechanisms
governing the interaction between silver ions and
viral proteins is still evolving. Elucidating these
molecular interactions will be crucial for rational
design and optimization of the synthesis process.
Applications and Future Prospects
The unique properties of virus-synthesized
AgNPs open up a vast array of potential
applications, particularly in the biomedical
sector. Their well-documented antimicrobial and
antiviral activities make them excellent
candidates for developing new disinfectants,
wound dressings, and antiviral therapies [1, 3, 5,
7, 14, 15]. The ability to integrate AgNPs with
viral nanoparticles could lead to novel broad-
spectrum virucidal agents that can target specific
viral proteins or entry pathways, complementing
traditional antiviral drug development strategies
[4, 15].
Beyond their direct antimicrobial effects, virus-
nanoparticle conjugates hold immense promise in
drug delivery systems [9]. Viral nanoparticles,
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
8
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
due to their inherent ability to target specific cells
or tissues, can serve as smart carriers for
delivering therapeutic agents, including other
nanoparticles. For example, PVX has been
explored for doxorubicin delivery in cancer
therapy [11], and BMV-like particles as siRNA
nanocarriers [10]. Integrating AgNPs into such
systems could enable synergistic therapeutic
effects, combining the antimicrobial properties of
silver with targeted drug delivery.
Other promising applications include their use in
biosensors for highly sensitive and specific
detection of pathogens or biomolecules, catalysis
due to their large surface area and unique
electronic properties, and imaging agents. The
ability to precisely control the size and shape of
AgNPs through viral templating can optimize
their optical and catalytic properties for these
applications.
Future research in this field should focus on:
•
Elucidating the detailed molecular
mechanisms of silver ion reduction and
nanoparticle nucleation on viral surfaces.
•
Developing strategies for large-scale, cost-
effective, and reproducible production of virus-
synthesized AgNPs.
•
Exploring the use of genetically
engineered viruses to precisely control the size,
shape, and surface chemistry of AgNPs for specific
applications.
•
Conducting comprehensive in vivo studies
to assess the biocompatibility, biodistribution,
and therapeutic efficacy of virus-synthesized
AgNPs, particularly as antiviral agents and drug
delivery vehicles.
•
Investigating the potential of combining
different viral platforms or integrating AgNPs
with
other
nanomaterials
to
create
multifunctional hybrid systems.
In conclusion, virus-mediated synthesis offers a
compelling and sustainable pathway for the
production of silver nanoparticles with tailored
properties. As our understanding of virus-metal
interactions deepens and biotechnological tools
become more sophisticated, this biomimetic
approach is poised to revolutionize the design
and application of advanced nanomaterials for a
healthier and more sustainable future.
References
1.
Dhaka A, Mali S, Sharma S, Rohini Trivedi R. A
review on biological synthesis of Silver
nanoparticles and their potential applications.
Results in Chemistry. 2023;6. 101108.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2023.1011
08
2.
Ahmad N, Malik MA, Wani AH, Bhat MY.
Biogenic silver nanoparticles from fungal
sources: Synthesis, characterization, and
antifungal potential. Microbial Pathogenesis.
2024;193.
106742.
Available
from:
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
9
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
3.
Arshad F, Naikoo GA, Hassan IU. Bioinspired
and Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
for Medical Applications: A Green Perspective.
Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology.
2024;196:3636
–
3669. Available from:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-023-
04719-z
4.
Hangyu W, Li P, Shen J, Wang H, et al.
Advancements
in
Antiviral
Drug
Development: Comprehensive Insights into
Design Strategies and Mechanisms Targeting
Key Viral Proteins. Journal of Microbiology
and Biotechnology. 2024; 34(7): 1376-1384.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2403.03008
5.
Mikhailova
EO.
Silver
Nanoparticles:
Mechanism of Action and Probable Bio-
Application.
Journal
of
Functional
Biomaterials. 2020; 11(4): 84. Available from:
https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb11040084
6.
Nguyen NPU, Dan NT, Doan L, Nguyen TTH.
Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: From
Conventional to ‘Modern’ Methods=A Review.
Processes. 2023;11: 2617. Available from:
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11092617
7.
Jain N, Jain P, Rajput D, Patil UK. Green
synthesized plant-based silver nanoparticles:
therapeutic prospective for anticancer and
antiviral activity. Micro and Nano Systems
Letters. 2021; 9: 5. Available from:
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40486-021-
00131-6
8.
Hema M, Vardhan GPV, Savithri HS, Murthy
MRN. Emerging Trends in the Development of
Plant Virus-Based Nanoparticles and Their
Biomedical
Applications.
Recent
Developments in Applied Microbiology and
Biochemistry.
2019;
61-82.
ISBN
9780128163283.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
816328-3.00006-4
9.
Venkataraman S, Apka P, Shoeb E, Badar U,
Hefferon K. Plant Virus Nanoparticles for
Anticancer
Therapy.
Frontiers
in
Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 2021; 9:
642794.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.642794
10.
Alfredo NR, Pierrick GJF, Danna LA, Ana GRH.
Brome mosaic virus-like particles as siRNA
nanocarriers for biomedical purposes.
Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 2020;
11:
372
–
382.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.11.28
11.
Le Duc HT, Lee Karin L, Shukla S,
Commandeur U. Potato virus X, a filamentous
plant viral nanoparticle for doxorubicin
delivery in cancer therapy. Nanoscale. 2017;
9:
2348-2357.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6nr09099k
12.
Scibilia S, Germana L, Enza F, Domenico F. Self-
assembly of silver nanoparticles and
bacteriophage. Sensing and Bio-Sensing
Research 2016; 7: 46-152. Available from:
Volume 05 Issue 06-2025
10
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
06
Pages:
1-10
OCLC
–
1368736135
13.
Kakakhel IA, Sajjad W, Wu F, Bibi N. Green
synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their
shortcomings, animal blood a potential source
for silver nanoparticles: A review. Journal of
Hazardous Materials Advances. 2021; 1:
100005.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2021.1000
05
14.
Jeevanandam J, Krishnan S, Hii Y S. Synthesis
approach-dependent antiviral properties of
silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites.
Journal of Nanostructure in Chemistry. 2022;
12:
809-831.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40097-021-
00465-y
15.
Lara HH, Garza-Treviño EN, Ixtepan-Turrent
L, et al. Silver nanoparticles are broad-
spectrum
bactericidal
and
virucidal
compounds. Journal of Nanobiotechnology.
2011;
9:
30.
Available
from:
https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-3155-9-30
