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FORMATION OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS AND THEIR
TRASLATION
Mohinur Qayimova
Master degree student of Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages
Abstract—
The study of word formation of compounds is currently so confused that crafting an introduction to the topic without
controversy seems unattainable and the method of creating words in English is examined in various educational materials and
lexicons written by different scholars.This article focuses on the discussion of formation of compounds, compounding as one of the
means of word- formation in English, as well as its criteria.
Key words
— iction Compound, formation, compounding, endocentric, exocentric, copulative compound.
1.
I
NTRODUCTION
In linguistics, there are several different branches which study about different aspects in language. Mainly, there are phonetics,
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. The branch which focuses on the study of word is called morphology,
which deals with the internal constituent structure of words [Booij, 2005, 232]. It is similar to Lieber, who states that morphology
is the study of word formation, as well as the way new forms of words are coined in the languages. of the world, and the way forms
of words are varied depending on how they are used in sentences. Thus, it is simply defined that morphology is a branch of
linguistics which examines or studies the theory of word. Word is defined as the smallest free form which has a meaning in
language. It is considered as the basic meaningful units that every language has [Carstairs- McCarthy, 2002]. As stated by
O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba that word is “the smallest free form found in language”. Words which are used to
communicate by people in daily lives commonly exist within sentence chains and they consist of various forms. Some examples of
the word-formation processes in language are affixation, infixation, suffixation, conversion or zero-derivation, reduplication,
clipping, blending, backformation, and acronym. One of the processes which is often discussed is the process of compounding.
Then, the word which is resulted from the process is called a compound word.
2.
M
AIN PART
A compound is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one lexical stem functioning as a single item, with its own
meaning and grammar. For example, secondhand, waterbike [ProshinaZ., 2008, 156];
Lieber and Štekauer state that there are two forms of compounds, namely the synthetic compounds and the root compounds. Thus,
according to this division the following are examples of such compounds [Lieber and Štekauer, 2005, 375]:
a) Synthetic compounds: bus driver, birth-giving
b) Root compounds: cat bowl, ice blue, whiteboard, fat-free. Moreover,Lieber and Stekauerconsider the synthetic compounds to be
as productive inEnglish as well as the root compounds. In this way, they point out that the noun-adjective, adjective-noun
(whiteboard), and adjective-adjective root compounds are also productive [Lieber and Stekauer. 2005, 375]. Furthermore, they also
emphasise that other root compounds such as verb-verb compounds and noun-verb compounds are not as productive as the
previously mentioned compounds, since they are harder to form.
1) Synthetic compound. According to Lieber and Stekauer, the synthetic compounds are also called verbal, deverbal or verbal
nexus compounds. Similarly, Fabb points out that the synthetic compound has as its head a derived word consisting of a verb plus
one of a set of affixes-er, -ing, passive adjectival-en, such as in the examples of window cleaning. Lieber and Stekauer further point
out that the synthetic compounding, like root compounding, is highly productive in English and it is right-headed. The following
examples explain this phenomenon:
a) Lorry driver, meat packer, dog lover
b) Lorry driving, meat packing, dog loving
c) Desire driven, dog bitten, well fed,
It is agreed that where the deverbalized suffix is-er, or-ing, the stem is interpreted as an intermal argument of the verb stem [Lieber
and Stekauer, 2005]. Therefore, in the example dog lover, it is someone who loves dogs. Moreover, they emphasize that in the
earliest generative treatment of synthetic compouns, a transformational derivation for synthetic compounds was used. Based on
this, Lieber and Stekauer consider that there are sentence deep structures that can be used for synthetic compounds, where the
transformations can successfully show this phenomenon. Thus, a compound like meat eater derives from a deep structure sentence
(E.g. The man eats meat) as do the synthetic compound meat eating, and the root compound eating meat.
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2) Root compound. Root compounds are also called primary compounds where the second stem is not deverbal (Štekauer and
Lieber, 2005). According to them, root compounds consist of combinations of the open categories N (noun), V (verb), A
(adjective). Thus, the following compounds underline this statement:
(1) Noun Compounds: NN bird food, watermill, book shelf
(2) Noun Compounds: AN long distance, last minute
(3) Adjective Compounds: N A sugar free, world famous, skyblue
(4) Adjective Compounds: A A big blue, wide awake
5) Noun Compounds: VN, pickpocket, pull card.
Considering these examples, they claim that the first four sets are highly productive, whereas the compounds containing a verb as
one or more members are less productive, without taking into consideration the neologisms. Moreover, root compounds are
syntactically and usually semantically right- headed, where in general the root compounds are endocentric, being interpreted as
hyponyms of their second stems [Štekauer and Lieber, 2005, 123].
They further explain that in the adjective-adjective compound skyblue the first stem sky denotes a sort of blue, and this can also be
applied to other productive N N and A A compounds [Stekauer and Lieber, 2005, 243]. In contrast to this, they believe that there
are also exocentric root compounds, such as the redhead or airhead (ibid.). These compounds are not types of head, but they are
metonyms for types of people, for example in the former a person with red hair, and the latter a forgetful person [Štekauer and
Lieber, 2005, 378].
An English compound may also have (though not very often) a linking element, mostly the consonant –s- (sportsman, statesman,
spokesman), and occasionally vowels –o-, --a-, -i- (washomat, sportsarama, pluridimensional) – though the cases with the linking
vowel belong rather to stem reduction than to stem composition.
To translate a new compound, especially one not included in the dictionary,it is necessary to analyze syntactic relations between
the compound elements andtheir meanings. These relations may be as follows:
A) predicate relations, i.e. subject toverb: earthquake (the earth quakes), headache;
B) object relations, i.e. verb to object:scarecrow (scares crows), sightseeing
C) attribute relations: goldfish,postman;
D) adverbial relations: much-improved (improved a lot), night-flying (flying at night);
When the meaning and grammatical relations of the compound elements are clear, it is possible to look for a proper means of
translation. It may be
1) another compound: tax-payer – налогоплательщик; law-abiding –законопослушный;
2) analogue: hangman – палач; homesick – ностальгический; childcare –детскийсад; air-headed – ветервголове;
3) calque: waterbike – водныймотоцикл; breathtaking – захватывающийдыхание.
Compounds with object and adverbial relations between the elementsare often translated in the reverted linear order: tax-free –
свободныйотналогов; far-advanced – продвинутыйвперед; home-grown vegetables – овощи, выращенныедома;
4) half-calque: pop-star – поп-звезда; surfspeak – языксерфистов;
5) transcription or transliteration: popcorn – попкорн; videobusiness –видеобизнес; audioplayer – аудиоплейер. This technique
is normally employed when a word, denoting a piece of realia, is borrowed into the target language;
6) explication and extension: flypaper – липкаялентаотмух; gravity-challenged – неспособныйпрыгнутьвысоко;
7)substitution of one or both of the components: popcorn – воздушнаякукуруза;blackboard – класснаядоска; пылесос – vacuum
cleaner. It is important that a translator not invent a new word, but use a standard word, fixed in the dictionary (it is of particular
significance in translating terms) [Proshina.Z, 2008, 157].
3.
C
ONCLUSION
In delving into the formation of compound words in English and their translation, one unearths not just linguistic evolution, but a
reflection of human cognition's kaleidoscopic creativity. Compounds are one of the important component in language and create a
successful communication.Compounding is consideredto be highly productive, especially when interpreting noun-noun
compounds, as they can involve nouns, adjectives and verbs as non-heads. The translation of compound words is an important
problem related to the construction of translation dictionaries. Therefore, acquiring translations for compound nouns is extremely
important. All in all, this article addressed to the formation of compound words and focused on different approaches of translating
them.
4.
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