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CRITICALLY EVALUATION THE CONTRIBUTION OF TRAIT BASED
THEORIES TO CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES SUCH AS
TRANSFORMATIONAL, TRANSACTIONAL AND AUTHENTIC
LEADERSHIP
Khusanov Salokhiddin
Assistant of the "Innovation management" department of the Tashkent State
Economic University
Abstract:
This paper examines the contribution of trait-based theories to
contemporary leadership approaches, focusing on transformational, transactional, and
authentic leadership styles. It begins with an exploration of the Great Man Theory,
which posits that leaders are born, not made, and transitions into a discussion on the
trait-based leadership theory. Although the popularity of trait-based theories waned due
to the inability to identify consistent traits among successful leaders, their impact
remains significant. Key traits such as charisma, emotional intelligence, and the Big
Five personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism) are analyzed in the context of their relevance to
modern leadership. The paper argues that understanding these traits can help
organizations identify and develop potential leaders. Despite criticisms for neglecting
situational factors, trait-based theories have provided valuable insights into the
personal qualities that contribute to effective leadership.
Key Words: Trait-based leadership theory, transformational leadership,
transactional leadership, authentic leadership, charisma, emotional intelligence, big
five personality traits, leadership effectiveness, leader traits, personality traits.
TRANSFORMATSIYA, TRANZAKSIYA VA AUSENTIK QARASHLARNI
LIDERLIKKA QO‘SHGAN HISSASINI TANQIDIY TAHLIL QILISH
Xusanov Salohiddin
Toshkent davlat iqtisodiyot universiteti “Innovatsion menejment” kafedrasi assistenti
Annotatsiya:
Ushbu maqolada transformatsiya, tranzaksiya va haqiqiy
yetakchilik uslublariga e’tibor qaratgan holda, xususiyatlar nazariyalarining
yetakchilikka zamonaviy yondashuvlarga qo‘shgan hissasi ko‘rib chiqiladi. U buyuk
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inson nazariyasini o‘rganish bilan boshlanadi, unda liderlar tug‘iladi, ular yaratilmaydi
va yetakchilik xususiyatlari nazariyasi muhokamasiga o‘tadi. Muvaffaqiyatli rahbarlar
orasida izchil xususiyatlarni aniqlashning imkoni yo‘qligi sababli xususiyatlar
nazariyalarining mashhurligi pasaygan bo‘lsa-da, ularning ta'siri muhimligicha
qolmoqda. Xarizma, hissiy intellekt va Katta beshlik shaxsiyat xususiyatlari (tajribaga
ochiqlik, vijdonlilik, ekstraversiya, xushmuomalalik va nevrotiklik) kabi asosiy
xususiyatlar ularning zamonaviy yetakchilik bilan bog‘liqligi kontekstida tahlil
qilinadi. Maqolada ushbu xususiyatlarni tushunish tashkilotlarga potensial liderlarni
aniqlash va rivojlantirishga yordam berishi aytiladi. Vaziyat omillarini e’tiborsiz
qoldirish uchun tanqid qilinganiga qaramay, xususiyatga asoslangan nazariyalar
samarali yetakchilikka hissa qo‘shadigan shaxsiy fazilatlar haqida qimmatli ma’lumot
berdi.
Kalit so‘zlar:
Xususiyatlarga asoslangan yetakchilik nazariyasi,
transformatsion yetakchilik, tranzaksion yetakchilik, haqiqiy yetakchilik, xarizma,
hissiy intellekt, katta beshta shaxsiy xususiyatlar, yetakchilik samaradorligi,
yetakchilik xususiyatlari, shaxsiy xususiyatlar.
КРИТИЧЕСКАЯ ОЦЕНКА ВКЛАДА ТЕОРИЙ, ОСНОВАННЫХ НА
ЧЕРТАХ, В СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ПОДХОДЫ, ТАКИЕ КАК
ТРАНСФОРМАЦИОННОЕ, ТРАНЗАКЦИОННОЕ И АУТЕНТИЧНОЕ
ЛИДЕРСТВО
Хусанов Салохиддин
Ассистент кафедры «Инновационный менеджмент» Ташкентского
государственного экономического университета
Аннотация
:
В этой статье рассматривается вклад теорий, основанных на
чертах, в современные подходы к лидерству, с упором на трансформационный,
транзакционный и аутентичный стили лидерства. Она начинается с
исследования теории великого человека, которая утверждает, что лидерами
рождаются, а не становятся, и переходит к обсуждению теории лидерства,
основанного на чертах. Хотя популярность теорий, основанных на чертах, пошла
на убыль из
-
за неспособности определить последовательные черты среди
успешных лидеров, их влияние остается значительным. Ключевые черты, такие
как харизма, эмоциональный интеллект и Большая пятерка черт личности
(открытость опыту, добросовестность, экстраверсия, доброжелательность и
невротизм), анализируются в контексте
их значимости для современного
лидерства. В статье утверждается, что понимание этих черт может помочь
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организациям выявлять и развивать потенциальных лидеров. Несмотря на
критику за игнорирование ситуативных факторов, теории, основанные на чертах,
дали ценную информацию о личных качествах, которые способствуют
эффективному лидерству.
Ключевые слова
:
Теория лидерства, основанная на чертах характера,
трансформационное лидерство, транзакционное лидерство, аутентичное
лидерство, харизма, эмоциональный интеллект, большая пятерка черт
личности, эффективность лидерства, черты лидера, черты личности.
INTRODUCTION
Leadership has been complex and researched concept for centuries. However, it
is important to recognize that no single leadership theory can capture all the diverse
forms and dimensions of leadership. Trait approach to leadership was one first theory
which emphasized personal trait that can be seen in successful leaders. However, due
to the lack of identifying certain traits in leaders, it led to trait approach decline
popularity. But we do think that trait approach contribution to contemporary leadership
was significant in terms of detecting leader qualities and developing them to achieve
organizational goal.
This article addresses the question how trait-based theories contributed to the
contemporary leadership with relevant literature about theories and research. The
discussion will begin with an examination of the Great Man theory and then moves on
to trait-based theories. Furthermore, a critical analysis will be conducted on trait-based
theories and their relationship with contemporary leadership through the lens of
charisma, emotional intelligence, and the Big Five personality traits.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Leadership has been major research area over the centuries and different
definitions have been offered to leadership, as example (Katz & Khan, 1966) offered
leadership as “any act of influence on matter of organizational relevance” (p.334) [18].
The one of the earliest leadership theories was trait-based leadership theory, however,
this theory is not fully researched with extensively tested hypotheses and still relevant
to leadership approaches. Later, researchers started observing new situational
leadership theory as main course of leadership and they also started learning behaviours
of leaders. Recently, however, among researchers remerged again importance of
personal traits, especially after introducing Big five factor of personality (McCrae &
Costa, 1997) [20]. Today, a lot of books and articles consider personal traits are still
main factor determining effective leadership. The primary idea is the individual who
possesses certain traits may be become successful leader. Gardner (1989) identified
several personal traits that helps leader to become successful and effective. Researchers
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started recorrecting gaps between personal trait and leadership and attempted to
identify links and impact of traits on effectiveness of leader [12].
One of earliest study regarding the trait in psychology is, Cowley (1931)
explored early connection between trait with leadership and he stated that “the
approach to the study of leadership has usually been and perhaps must always be
through the study of traits” (p.144) [11]. The framework of trait leadership introduced
by (Stogdill, 1948) [27] and reviewed by (Bass, 1990) [3]. However, Yukl and Van
Fleet (1992) [35] remarked that the effectiveness of trait-based leadership is contingent
upon the situation, but Thorne (1987) examined the idea of people act differently with
each other based on personality [30]. The study explored extravert people communicate
differently with stranger than introvert. Moreover, according to the Trait activation
theory personality of one person can influence the personality of another person (Tett
& Burnett, 2003) [29]. In order to identify these links, we studied impact of personal
traits to contemporary leadership theories (Transformational, Transactional and
Authentic).
In order to identify correlation between the personal traits and leadership, a
number of researchers were conducted. The research which conducted by Bono &
Judge (2000) explored linked traits five factor model to transformational leadership.
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness were tested to
assume effective leaders’ behaviour. Importance of research is that it showed
Extraversion and Agreeableness were positively predictable asset of transformational
leadership [7]. Quantitative and qualitative survey were conducted by (Bono, et al.,
2002) researched five factor personalities with leadership emergence and leadership
effectiveness [8]. The result indicated that there is strong correlation between
Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness with leadership, but
could not find evidence regarding Neuroticism in leadership. Later these authors (Bono
& Judge, 2004) carried out new observation regarding the big five factor model of
personality and transformational, transactional leaderships [6]. This time they explored
three dimensions of transformational: idealized influence–inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration; three dimensions of
transactional: contingent reward, management by exception–active, and passive
leadership. Accordingly, result showed that extraversion was main component of
transformational leadership, but research lacked narrower personality traits. Because
some researchers argued that Big five personality is not sufficient to identify
relationship between personal traits and leadership. (Hough, 1992) argued that five
factor personality is so broad and includes a wide range of features and it does not give
proper evidence [16]. Accordingly, another research regarding personality and
leadership which conducted by (Bono, et al., 2012) also showed impact of rater
personality on non-random variance of transformational leadership [5]. (Prochazka, et
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al., 2018) conducted research regarding leader traits, transformational leadership, and
leader effectiveness [25]. Along with other studies, this research also proved some
personal traits strongly associated with leader effectiveness and some of personal traits
such as neuroticism and openness to experience were not linked to transformational
leadership. Effect of emotional intelligence on transformational leadership and
managerial performance were researched by (Cavazotte, et al., 2012) [10].
The word authenticity roots back to ancient Greek philosophy and came from
Greek word “authento”, “to have full power” (Trilling, 1972) [31]. Modern most
suitable definition of Authentic Leadership is given research by (Walumbwa, et al.,
2008) “…. authentic leadership as a pattern of leader behaviour that draws upon and
promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster
greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of
information, and relational transparency…” (p. 49) [33]. Over the last two decades,
researchers studying authentic leadership from different prospective. The study to
explore self- based model of authentic leadership was done by Gardner, Avolio,
Luthans, May and Walumba, (2005) and gave broader knowledge about self-
awareness, self- regulation, and positive modelling, authentic leaders impact on society
[13]. Current development of authentic leadership development roots positive
psychology and it is impact on leadership were studied by same authors. Connection
between the personal traits and authentic leadership studied research which carried out
by (Peus, et al., 2012) [24]. The study more focused on individual’s self- knowledge
and self-consistency as root of authentic leadership. Shahzad, Raja, and Hashmi (2021)
studied how big five factor of personality may impact of authentic leaders’
effectiveness [26]. Result suggested that identifying personal traits may help
organizations to identify authentic leaders and helps managers to develop important
traits among employees. A meta-analysis regarding emotional intelligence and
authentic leadership was examined by (Miao, et al., 2018) [22]. The study identified
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership strongly connected and have common
roots which makes personal trait one of the main compounds of leadership.
METHODOLOGY
This study employs a literature-based methodology to critically evaluate the
contributions of trait-based leadership theories to contemporary approaches, including
transformational, transactional, and authentic leadership. A systematic literature
review (SLR) was conducted, focusing on peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and
meta-analyses published between [insert relevant years, e.g., 1980–2024]. Relevant
academic databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and JSTOR were
used for data collection. Keywords such as "trait-based leadership," "transformational
leadership," "transactional leadership," "authentic leadership," "Big Five traits," and
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"emotional intelligence" were combined using Boolean operators to ensure
comprehensive coverage of the topic. Articles were screened based on inclusion
criteria, prioritizing studies directly related to trait-based theories and their application
in leadership, while excluding non-peer-reviewed materials and unrelated works. The
data analysis involved thematic analysis to identify recurring patterns, such as the role
of personality traits like extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional intelligence in
leadership effectiveness, and critical appraisal to evaluate the strengths, limitations,
and gaps in the literature. Findings were synthesized to provide a cohesive
understanding of trait-based contributions to leadership, highlighting both consistent
trends and conflicting evidence. This methodology facilitates a detailed examination
of the theoretical and practical implications of trait-based theories, offering valuable
insights for advancing leadership research and development.
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
One of the earliest leadership theories is Great man which suggests that leaders
are born with some personal traits and characteristics that make them successful in any
situation (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991) [19]. Theory was introduced by philosopher
Thomas Carlyle who thought the notion that history is primarily changed by
extraordinary individuals who possess a distinctive blend of exceptional qualities and
traits that differentiate them from the general populace was held by many. This
hypothesis led to emerge trait-based leadership theory and like great man theory trait
based also centralise personal traits main indicator of successful leaders, but trait theory
does not assume that personal traits innate or learned. (Gardner, 1989) came up with
certain traits that helps leaders become successful: Physicality, Intelligence,
responsibility, self-confidence, assertiveness, and other traits [12].
The Five Factor Model, also known as the Big Five personality traits, has been
widely used to explore the relationship between personality traits and leadership
characteristics (Goldberg, 1990) [14]. The Five Factor Model was first proposed by
Tupes and Christal (1961) [32] and has since evolved through the study of individuals
across various countries and cultures (McCrae & John, 1992) [21]. This model
identifies five key dimensions of personality: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to
Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (McCrae & Costa, 1997) [20].
These personality traits have been studied to examine their potential contributions to
contemporary leadership theories.
The concept of transformational leadership dates to Burns (1978) [9], when he
first identified differences between the transformational and transactional leadership
theories. The later (Bass, 1985) classified eight dimensions of transformational and
transactional leadership [3]. According to the Bass (1985) [3], transformational
leadership consist of mainly idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
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stimulation, and Individual consideration. Whereas transactional leadership includes
contingent reward, management by exception-active, management by exception-
passive and laissez-faire dimensions.
Charisma is considered an essential feature of transformational and transactional
leadership, which is characterized by the ability to inspire and motivate followers
towards a shared vision or goal. In fact, the first dimension of transformational
leadership is Idealized Influence, which is often referred to as charisma.
Transformational leaders are seen as role models for others and are able to lead people
towards a common goal or vision (Northouse, 2013) [23]. According to Burns (1978),
charisma is a crucial aspect of transformational leadership, as it can lead to positive
social change. Martin Luther King is often cited as an example of a transformational
leader who used his charisma to bring about positive change in people's lives [9].
However, it is important to note that charisma can have negative consequences if it is
not accompanied by a sense of social consciousness. Leaders such as Hitler, who
possessed charisma but lacked social consciousness, led their followers to negative
extremes. In transactional leadership, charisma helps leaders to build strong bonds
within the way listening, supporting, and rewarding followers. It leads to positive
exchange between transactional leader and follower. Moreover, transactional leaders
use charisma as tool for praise or recognition, on the other hand it can be used as
negative method, criticizing, or punishing follower who cannot meet certain goal or
objective.
Table 1.
Summary of Key Trait-Based Theories and Their Contributions to
Contemporary Leadership
Theory/Concept
Key Traits/Components
Contribution to
Contemporary
Leadership
Key
References
Great Man
Theory
Leaders are born with
certain traits
Foundation for trait-
based theories
Kirkpatrick &
Locke (1991)
Trait-Based
Leadership
Theory
Personal traits such as
intelligence, self-
confidence,
responsibility,
assertiveness
Identification of leader
qualities; Influence on
transformational,
transactional, and
authentic leadership
Gardner
(1989),
Stogdill
(1948), Bass
(1990)
Big Five
Personality Traits
Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness
to Experience,
Framework for
assessing leader traits
and predicting
McCrae &
Costa (1997),
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Intelligence or Emotional intelligence (EI) is essential personal trait that
contributes effectiveness of leader. EI made up major four components: self-
awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social relationship management
(Goleman, et al., 2013) [15]. We do think that Intelligence and EI strongly associated
with the transformational leader’s effectiveness and vision. The leader who owns high
level intelligence can create strong links with followers, give them support on time,
building friendly, creative environment. Emotional intelligence helps leader to come
up with clear vision to goal, making decisions with wise and effective. Intelligence and
EI are core for two dimensions of transformational leadership: Intellectual stimulation
and Individualized consideration. Because Intellectual stimulation involves inspiring
followers to think creatively and push the boundaries of their own beliefs and values,
as well as those of the leader and the organization, in order to drive innovation and
progress (Bass, 1985) [3]. Individualized consideration is creating an environment for
followers in which they actively listen to and address the individual needs of their
Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness
leadership
effectiveness
Bono &
Judge (2004)
Transformational
Leadership
Charisma (Idealized
Influence), Inspirational
Motivation, Intellectual
Stimulation,
Individualized
Consideration
Emphasis on leader-
follower relationship;
Positive social change
Burns (1978),
Bass (1985)
Transactional
Leadership
Contingent Reward,
Management by
Exception (active and
passive)
Focus on exchanges
between leader and
followers; Clear
structure and rewards
system
Bass (1985)
Authentic
Leadership
Self-awareness,
Relational Transparency,
Internalized Moral
Perspective, Balanced
Processing
Promotes ethical
leadership and self-
regulation
Walumbwa et
al. (2008),
Gardner et al.
(2005)
Emotional
Intelligence (EI)
Self-awareness, Self-
management, Social
Awareness, Relationship
Management
Enhances
transformational and
authentic leadership;
Critical for effective
leadership
Goleman et
al. (2013),
Cavazotte et
al. (2012)
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followers. Leaders may take to support the growth of their followers is to delegate tasks
that present personal challenges, thus providing opportunities for them to develop and
expand their skills and capabilities (Avolio & Bass, 1999) [1]. In order to prove it we
provide some research that studied intelligence and leadership (Zaccaro, et al., 2004)
[36] studied intelligence with leadership and showed positive outcome. More specific
study Intelligence, EI and transformational leadership examined by (Cavazotte, et al.,
2012) [10]. The study explored that EI strongly correlated with effectiveness of
transformational leadership. EI contributed to transactional leaders in a way that they
can better understand follower and theirs needs and using it to reward or punishing
followers. Certainly, transactional leader who has high levels of EI can built strong
positive links with followers and it can help them to boost motivation and productivity
of followers.
According to the (Walumbwa, et al., 2008), they argued that authentic leadership
consist of four dimensions: self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral
perspective and balanced processing [33]. Upon closer examination, it becomes clear
that the self-awareness component of emotional intelligence is closely related to the
self-awareness aspect of authentic leadership. People with emotional intelligence are
able to grasp the situation at hand and discern their own desires as well as the desires
of others through self-awareness, which is an important skill for authentic leadership.
These qualities often bonded with authentic leadership. Additionally, authentic leader
who employs emotional intelligence can identify the needs of their followers and
address them effectively using emotional intelligence. For instance, if an employee is
struggling with an excessive workload, an authentic leader can recognize this and help
on how to manage it using emotional intelligence techniques. (Miao, et al., 2018)
analysed that relationship between emotional intelligence with authentic leadership and
discovered that accomplished authentic leaders consistently demonstrate a high level
of emotional intelligence [22]. Therefore, it can be inferred that emotional intelligence
is strongly associated with all types of leadership theories, including contemporary
leadership.
The Big Five personality traits can be used to identify correlations between traits
and leadership, as many studies have been conducted using the Big Five personality
traits as the foundation for these traits. We believe that out of five personality
extraversions, conscientious, agreeableness and openness to experience are linked
more than others with leadership. Extraversions means person who outgoing, active,
sociable, energetic, and assertive. Extraverts tent to be articulated goal clearly and they
are comfortable in any difficult situation. For this reason, extraversions trait
contributed development of transformational leadership significantly. The study which
conducted by (Bono, et al., 2002) showed that extraversion is the most correlated
personal trait to leadership. They identified extraversion is more visible in leader
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emergence rather than leader effectiveness [8]. Authentic leadership’s important part
also extraversions, because authentic leadership demands being good communicator to
enhance authenticity among followers. (Shahzad, et al., 2021) explored Big five
personality and authentic leadership and they found that extroversions also were main
component of authentic leadership [26].
Conscientious displays people who work hard, planned, self-disciplined and
responsible. The main aspect of conscientious is self-discipline (Barrick & Mount,
1991) and often connected with transformational leadership. They keep promises and
have clear vision regarding future. For this reason, conscientious should be linked with
inspirational motivation and individualized consideration [22]. The studies (Cavazotte,
et al., 2012) and (Prochazka, et al., 2018) also suggested that conscientious is the only
Big five personality that correlated leader effectiveness via transformational leadership
[25]. (Bono & Judge, 2004) also showed that conscientious is second the most
important component of transformational leadership [6]. In addition, we also think that
conscientious more correlated with transactional leadership because contingent reward
requires exchange effort and more task-oriented process. It can also be linked to
management by exception both active and passive and conscientious leader who
responsible for follower’s mistake and progress. Highly conscientious leaders think
carefully before making decision in order to cover all uncertainties and conscientious
leader communicate with followers with integrity and fairly. These characteristics are
also applicable to authentic leadership, and our belief is supported by a study conducted
by Shahzad et al. (2021) [26].
Agreeableness displays people who kind, trusting, ready for collaboration and
gentle (McCrae & John, 1992) [21]. They are helpful, cooperative and tent to
understand and support others. Transformational leaders also give attention to each
member of team, and they tent to concerned about others (Bass, 1990) [3]. It is possible
that agreeableness is positively correlated with individualized consideration, as the
traits required for individualized consideration, such as being empathetic, considerate,
and supportive, overlap with those associated with agreeableness. Furthermore,
idealized influence and contingent reward also emerged through agreeableness because
both dimensions show likely same personal traits as agreeableness. According to the
(Yukl, 1998), agreeableness influence on leadership negatively [34]. But research
which carried out by (Prochazka, et al., 2018) showed that agreeableness was strongest
feature of effective transformational leader [25]. Agreeableness can increase
confidence among follower and leader and high levels agreeableness makes followers
to believe decisions of leader. According to the study conducted by Shahzad et al.
(2021), agreeableness is closely linked with fairness, which is an important indicator
of authentic leadership [26].
Openness to experience often explains as imaginative, creative, intellectual,
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adventurous, and open to new ideas. According to the (Bass, 1990) openness to
experience is best collaborates with leadership and only trait in Big five factor model
that linked with intelligence [3]. (Bennis, 1989) claimed that leader’s vision comes
from creativity and most researchers connected it with transformation leadership
through intellectual stimulation [4]. (Yukl, 1998) also added creativity as the core traits
for leaders [34]. (Bono & Judge, 2000) found also that openness to experience is core
of transformational leadership [7]. However, we do believe that openness to experience
contributed all dimensions of transformational and transactional leadership. Because
any leader who wants to change needs creativity, intelligence and imagination toward
vision shared goal. In addition, openness to experience can be interpreted as being
original for self and for followers (Walumbwa, et al., 2008) [33]. Being creative,
intellectual cognitive makes openness to experience positive attribute of authentic
leadership and (Shahzad, et al., 2021) identified that openness to experience played
important role and was as a trigger for authentic leadership [26].
CONCLUSION
Neuroticism people described low self-esteem, fear, sadness, tendency to getting
offended and guilt (McCrae & John, 1992) [21]. Neuroticism often seen as opposite to
effective leadership because neuroticism lack of self-confidence and self- esteem
which are main component of successful leader (Bass, 1990) [3]. The people who
possess low level of neuroticism tent to be achieve certain goals faster that who has
high levels of neuroticism. We could not find relevant studies that showed neuroticism
was positively correlated with contemporary leadership. For this reason, among five
trait factor model neuroticism is only trait that did not contribute to contemporary
leadership. While trait-based theories of leadership have been criticized for neglecting
situational and contextual factors, they have nonetheless played a significant role in
developing contemporary leadership styles. In our analysis, we identified major trait
features that are still relevant for contemporary leadership, and we also recognize the
importance of contextual factors and situational awareness in leadership. By
understanding the role of traits in leadership, organizations can identify potential
leaders and develop their leadership capabilities through the lens of personal traits.
LIST OF USED REFERENCES
1. Avolio, B. & Bass, B., 1999. Re-examining the components of
transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership
questionnaire.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
Volume 72,
pp. 72-92.
2. Barrick, M. R. & Mount, M. K., 1991. The Big Five personality dimensions
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