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Зарубежная
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Foreign
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Patterns of interaction of categories generalizing external
factors of vocabulary development
Sobir KHAMZAEV
Uzbekistan State World Languages University
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received January 2024
Received in revised form
10 January 2024
Accepted 25 February 2024
Available online
25 May 2024
Among several factors, the globalization process also plays an
important role in the enrichment of the vocabulary stock of
languages. In addition, an important place in this process is
occupied by socio-political, and cultural factors and the speech of
famous people, including poets and writers, and political figures.
The systematic study of the role of socio-political, and cultural
changes that have occurred in the history of English-speaking
countries in the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English
language, as well as the role of the works of famous poets and
writers, is carried out in the present article. In addition to the
above-mentioned factors, the authors of the article note that in the
richness of the vocabulary stock of the English language, words
borrowed from other languages, and changes in the semantic
structure of existing words are also of high importance. At the
same time, it is intended to study both quantitative and qualitative
changes in the vocabulary stock of the English language.
Comparative, structural, and contextual methods have been
used in the analysis of language units covered in the article, and
methods such as modeling historical and derivational
relationships have also been used in the study of changes in the
semantic structure of existing words.
The role of some prominent writers and political figures of
England and America in the New England era on the enrichment
and development of the lexical content of the English literary
language, its enrichment with words, new word forms, phrases,
and archaisms that have entered it from other languages is
proved with concrete linguistic materials.
As a result of the study carried out in the article, the factors that
played an important role in the richness of English vocabulary,
both quantitative and qualitative, are covered in detail. At the
same time, the facts of enriching the vocabulary stock of the
English language with the help of internal resources, and the
emergence of new words, phrases, and other language units are
Keywords:
vocabulary stock,
enrichment of vocabulary,
intra-linguistic factors,
extra-linguistic factors,
borrowings,
loan words,
expansion of vocabulary,
scientific terminology.
1
Associate Professor, Doctor of Philosophy in Philology (PhD), Uzbekistan State World Languages University
Tashkent, Uzbekistan. E-mail: sobir.khamzaev@yahoo.com
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reflected precisely with the help of exact language materials. The
factors considered in the article are classified into types of extra-
linguistic and intra-linguistic ones, and this process was also
carried out based on specific language materials.
2181-3663
/©
2024 in Science LLC.
https://doi.org/10.47689/2181-3701-vol2-iss2-pp164-178
This is an open-access article under the Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) license (
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.ru
Til lug‘at tarkibi rivojlanishining tashqi omillarini
umumlashtiruvchi jihatlarning o‘zaro ta’siri
ANNOTATSIYA
Kalit so‘zlar
:
lug‘at zaxirasi,
lug‘atni boyitish,
ichki lingvistik omillar,
qo‘shimcha lingvistik
omillar,
o‘zlashtirish,
o‘zlashtirma so‘zlar,
lug‘atni kengaytirish,
ilmiy terminologiya.
Tillar lug‘at tarkibining boyishida bir qancha omillar qatori
globallashuv jarayoni ham muhim o‘rin tutadi. Bundan tashqari,
mazkur jarayonda ijtmoiy-siyosiy, madaniy omillar va mashhur
kishilar, jumladan shoir va yozuvchilar, siyosiy arboblar nutqi
ham ahamiyatga ega bo‘lib, ushbu maqolada ingliz tili lug‘at
tarkibining boyishida inglizzabon davlatlar tarixidagi qayd
etilgan holatlar tadqiq etilgan. Maqola muallifi yuqorida
ta’kidlangan omillardan tashqari ingliz tili lug‘at tarkibining
boyishida boshqa tillardan o‘zlashgan so‘zlar, mavjud
so‘zlarning semantik strukturasida yuz bergan o‘zgarishlarning
ham o‘zni yuqori ekanligini ta’kidlashadi. Shu bilan birgalikda,
ingliz lug‘at tarkibidagi miqdoriy va mazmuniy o‘zgarishlarni
ham tadqiq etish maqsad qilib qo‘yilgan.
Yangi Angliya davridagi Angliya va Amerikaning ko‘plab
taniqli yozuvchilari va siyosiy arboblarining ingliz adabiy tili
leksik tarkibining boyishi va rivojlanishiga ma’lum darajada ta’sir
ko‘rsatishi, uni boshqa tillardan kirib kelgan so‘zlar, yangi so‘z
shakllari, iboralar va arxaizmlar bilan boyitganliklari masalalari
ko‘rib chiqilishi natijasida muhokama etildan adiblarning mazkur
jarayondagi o‘rni aniq ma’lumotlar asosida dalillangan.
Закономерности взаимодействия категорий, обобщающих
внешние факторы развития словарного запаса
АННОТАЦИЯ
Ключевые слова:
словарный состав,
обогащение словарного
состава,
интерлингвистические
факторы,
экстралингвистические
факторы,
заимствования,
заимствованные слова,
расширение словарного
состава,
научная терминология
.
Среди многочисленных факторов, способствующих
процессу глобализации, значительную роль играет
обогащение словарного запаса языков. Кроме того, в этом
процессе важное место занимают социально
-
политические
и культурные факторы, а также речь известных личностей,
включая поэтов, писателей и политических деятелей.
Данная статья осуществляет системное исследование
роли социально
-
политических и культурных изменений,
произошедших в истории англоязычных стран, в
обогащении словарного запаса английского языка, а также
влияния произведений известных поэтов и писателей.
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Кроме
того,
авторы
статьи
отмечают
важность
заимствованных слов из других языков и изменений в
семантической структуре существующих слов.
В статье применялись различные методы анализа, такие
как сравнительные, структурные и контекстуальные
методы, а также моделирование исторических и
деривационных связей для изучения изменений в
семантической структуре существующих слов.
Роль выдающихся писателей и политических деятелей
Англии и Америки в эпоху Новой Англии в обогащении и
развитии лексического состава английского литературного
языка демонстрируется на конкретных лингвистических
примерах.
В результате проведенного исследования подробно
рассматриваются факторы, оказавшие значительное влияние
на обогащение словарного состава английского языка как
количественно, так и качественно. Данные факты отражаются
с
помощью
языковых
материалов,
подкрепленных
конкретными
примерами.
Исследуемые
в
статье
факторы классифицируются на экстралингвистические и
интралингвистические, причем этот процесс также основан на
конкретных языковых примерах.
INTRODUCTION
Socio-political changes in the life of English society are an important external
factor that had a certain impact on the enrichment of the vocabulary stock of the English
literary language with words borrowed from French, Scandinavian and Latin languages
during the corresponding political and social changes (Norman conquest, Scandinavian
invasion, Christianization, the introduction of printing, etc.).
There are two types of factors of language change: extra linguistic factors and intra
linguistic factors. Extra linguistic factors of language change include: a) geographical
factors; b) social factors; c) temporal factors [Kuldashev A.M, 2019; 37]. As V.V. Passek
writes, such external factors as the facts of the history of the people should be divided
into facts reflecting on the composition of the language (wars, trade), and facts
determining the different existence of the language (the formation of the nation, the
invention of the printing press, the activities of outstanding writers and publicists,
increased literacy) [Passek V.V., 1954; 8].
Koziol, in his work “Guide to English word formation”, points out that “... it is
necessary, first of all, to take into account foreign words that have penetrated into the
dawn of major political events, which in their large number are especially characteristic
of the English language” [Koziol
H., 1937; 11].
Political and social factors influenced the development of the lexical composition of
the English language directly, whereas general cultural factors did not affect immediately,
but gradually, indirectly. During the period of rapid economic, technical, and political
development of society, research on language changes plays a big role, which is primarily
a qualitative indicator of various transformations in society [Khamzaev S.A., 2022; 341].
As an example of a gradual, indirect influence on vocabulary, one can cite the true impact
of the language of Shakespeare’s works already in the XVIII –
early XIX century in
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connection with the increasing interest in his works, plays. The same can be said about
the indirect influence on the vocabulary of the language of Chaucer’s works. It should be
emphasized that two histories of any literary language should be distinguished: a)
internal, related to the internal, immanent laws of the language inherent in its very
structure and its systemic possibilities; b) external or extra linguistic, directly reflecting
the history of the country and the people speaking this or that language.
The lexical composition of the English and Uzbek languages is constantly
changing
–
new words and phrases appear, in parallel with this, many words emerge from
active use and become archaisms [Khamzaev S.A., 2023; 488].
Moreover, according to Khamzaev
S.A. “The process of the emergence of new
lexical units is directly related to their
pragmatic function” [Khamzaev
S.A., 2021; 3903].
While general cultural elements had a slow and indirect impact, political and social
considerations had a direct influence on the formation of the English language’s lexical
composition. Shakespeare’s plays and the growing interest in them in the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries might be used as an example of a slow, indirect influence
on vocabulary. The same is true of Chaucer’s writings’ indirect influence on linguistic
terminology. It is important to note that any literary language has two distinct histories:
internal and external. Internal history is connected to the internal, immanent rules of the
language that are present in the language’s own structure and systemic possibilities.
METHODS
Study design
Due to the realized goal and the qualitative specificity of the object, the present
article integrates the methods of comparison, component and contextual in the system of
a holistic diachronic approach analysis, modeling of historical and derivational
relationships. Comparative operations are applied to all interpretations of values used.
A holistic diachronic approach analysis system that models historical and
derivational linkages is integrated with comparison, component, and contextual
approaches in this piece because of the achieved goal and the qualitative specificity of the
object. All employed value interpretations undergo comparative processes.
RESULTS
In the case of the external history of language, emphasis should be placed on the
relationship and interdependence between the evolution of language and political, social,
cultural and other social trends in the development of a particular society. The study of
the external history of language should be based on the thesis that language and society,
civilization are interdependent and interrelated. Without this thesis, any scientific history
of the language will be one-sided and flawed. Under the influence of the events of
external history, there happened not only borrowing and creation of new words, but also
the loss of words or their meanings, replacements and additions. When discussing the
external history of language, it is important to highlight the connections and
interdependencies that exist between language evolution and other social trends as well
as political, social, and cultural developments in a given society. The idea that language
and civilization are intertwined and interdependent should serve as the foundation for
research on the external history of language. Any scientific history of the language that
does not include this notion will be incomplete and biased. In addition to words being
borrowed and created, words have also lost their meanings, been added to, or replaced as
a result of external historical events. For example, the
witena
Ʒ
emot
“assembly of elders”,
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which ceased to exist during the Norman conquest; the
“
Dane
З
eld tax
”
, which was paid to
the Scandinavians, was not collected after the fall of Denmark reign. Both words have
survived only as historical terms. Significant losses in the English vocabulary stock
resulted in the disuse, along with the genre of Old English poetry, of an entire stylistic
layer of words
–
the Old English poetic dictionary. Many of the words that were in Middle
English fell out of use and became obsolete in New English. For example: ME
româre
“a
pilgrim to Rome”. Losses also affected the level of maintenance. During the Norman
conquest, for instance, the
witenaƷemot
“assembly of elders” came to an end, and the
“
DaneЗeld tax
”, which was paid to the Scandinavians, was not collected once Denmark’s
reign came to an end. Only as historical terms have both words persisted. A whole
stylistic layer of terms, the Old English poetic lexicon, was rendered obsolete along with
the Old English poetry genre due to significant losses in the English vocabulary stock. In
New English, a great deal of vocabulary from Middle English became archaic and
outdated. Take ME
româre
, “a pilgrim to Rome”, as an example. The degree of upkeep was
also impacted by losses. Although the word survived, some of its meanings became
obsolete. For example, OE
3ift
had the meaning “the price of a wife”, which was
associated with one of the early meanings of the verb
Ʒ
yFAN
(NE
to give
) “to present
something in a marriage (dowry)”. It should be noted that losses were less important in
the development of the dictionary than substitutions and additions. While the word
persisted, some of its connotations became archaic. To illustrate, one of the early
meanings of the verb
Ʒ
yFAN
(NE to give) was
“
to present something in a marriage
(dowry)
”
, while OE
Ʒ
ift
meant
“
the price of a wife
”.
Revisions and additions were more
crucial in the dictionary’s development than deletions, it should be mentioned.
In subsequent periods of history, 80-85% of Old English words fell out of use. Most
of them have been replaced by other words of the same or similar meanings. The
replacement process took place as a result of the competition of synonyms and the final
choice of one of them. For example, OE
niman
was replaced by NE
taken
; OE
weor
ծ
an
was
replaced by the verb “to become”; OE
lêa
was replaced by NE “river”; the pronouns
hîe
and
hêo
were replaced by the pronouns “they” and “she”. Substitutions also took place in
the field of content. The word could be preserved, but its meaning was changed or
replaced with a new meaning. So, OE
cniht
“boy, servant” changed the meaning in ME and
NE “knight”; OE
clerec
“priest” evolved into ME clerk “student”, teaching and NE
“secretary in the office”. In certain cases, when the referent of a word underwent some
kind of change, the meanings of that word changed either. For example, ME
carre
“wheeled carriage” currently has the meaning “wagon” (NE car). However, the one to one
substitutions noted above do not lead to an increase in the number of words in the
English dictionary. In most cases, however, the substitutions were of the so-
called “split”
type. One unit could be replaced by two or more, and one value was differentiated into
several values. Such changes are classified as additions to the English dictionary. A large
number of changes to the English dictionary are covered by the additions. The total
amount for the additions largely compensates for the obsolescence process. Additions
can be complete; new words can be created to name new things, qualities and ideas. For
example: ME
citee
“a city with a cathedral”; NE “nylon”. The differentiation of synonyms
has led to the presence of many additions. Several synonyms could survive with
differences in stylistic connotations, compatibility, etc. For example: OE
neah, near, neara
survived as ME
neer
, its Middle English synonyms were
cloos
and
adjacent
, NE: “close”,
“near”, “adjacent, neighboring”.
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DISCUSSION
The expansion of the English vocabulary and the growth of polysemy and
homonymy led to the development of new meanings in the existing words. For example,
OE
craft
had the meaning “science; skill, strength”, in ME and NE
craft
lost the meaning of
“science”, acquiring new meanings of “a group of skilled workers, a guild” and “ship”.
The role of external factors in enriching the English vocabulary is very significant.
In contrast to the OE language, the English literary language of subsequent periods
borrowed foreign words by the hundreds. There were created new words on the basis of
borrowings assimilated by the English language by the way of word formation.
The development of science and technology was the reason for the creation of a
significant number of scientific and technical terms that had a certain impact on the
enrichment of the vocabulary of the English literary language. The progress of science
and technology can explain not only the emergence of new terms and entire
terminological systems, but also the development of new meanings in existing terms.
A term is a word (or phrase) that represents the exact designation of a certain
concept of any field of science, technology, art, etc. The linguistic function of a term is
defined as a nominal one.
The essence of the terms lies in the fact that they name objects, phenomena of
reality and concepts about them. Scientific terminology is not an ordinary set of words,
but a system of related words or phrases. This is the main difference between scientific
terminology and “simple” terminology [Kochetkov V.P., 1969; 19].
Extra linguistic factors such as the formation and development of natural sciences
and humanities are the reason for the development of terminological systems. Every
science has its own terminological system.
The issues of scientific terminology were dealt with by such scientists as
Bogorodsky [Bogorodskiy B.L., 1970; 185-187], Barkhudarov S.G. [Barxudarov S.G., 1970;
7-10], Kotelova N.Z. [Kotelova N.Z., 1970; 122-126] Mauer L.V. [Mauer L.V., 1979;
108-114], Goretsky Ya. [Goretskiy Ya., 1970; 119-121], Kuzmin N.P. [Kuzmin N.P., 1970;
68-81], Byalik V.D. [Byalik V.D., 1986; 25], Caso A.L. [Caso A.L., 1980; 101-111],
Hough J.N. [Hough J.N., 1953; 231].
Terminology is the most rapidly developing part of the lexical composition of a
language, in which socio-linguistic relationships are especially well observed. It is known
that a certain numerically smaller part of the special vocabulary, but the most significant
in its significance, may eventually penetrate into the vocabulary stock of the literary
language and represent an independent layer of the lexical composition of it
[Barannikova L.I., 1974; 8]. One of the stages in the formation of the term and
terminology is borrowing from foreign languages. At the same time, borrowed terms
collide with their domestic terms, and thus a huge centuries-old complex process is
underway [Bloomfield L., 1968; 187].
The term is a historical category, and its appearance is closely related to the
history of the development of society. As V.N.
Yartseva writes in her work “The History of
the English literary language of the IX
–XV centuries”, the interaction of languages can
play a significant role in the formation of various styles within the literary language.
An example would be the formation of a scientific style in one language under the
influence of another language. As usual, this is expressed in the broad borrowing of
scientific and technical terms from the language in which this field of science has already
received its specialized verbal expression [Yartseva V.N., 1985; 131].
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Back in the Old English period, following the introduction of Christianity in
England at the end of the sixth century, a significant number of scientific words appeared,
often borrowed from Latin, including the Greek element in Latin. These words denoted
concepts and ideas that appeared with the Christianization of the country. For example:
the OE word
circul
from Latin
circuius
; the OE
declinian
from Latin
declinare
, etc.
In addition to borrowings from classical languages, there were also a large number
of cripples from these languages among the scientific words. For example, the OE word
nemniendlic
“nominative” is a tracing paper of the Latin word
nominativus
[Rozina R.I.,
1977; 175].
Examples of later Christian borrowings from Latin related to scientific terminology
can be given:
verbena
(botanical term), etc. During the ME period, there continued the
process of borrowing scientific terms from Latin. For example,
formula
(mathematical
term), etc.
During the NE period, Latin scientific terms also continued to penetrate the English
literary language. In the XIX
–
XX centuries, almost exclusively some terms were
borrowed. For example:
quantum
,
to emit
(physical terms), etc. [Aloyan L.O., 1967; 111].
A significant influence on the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English literary
language was exerted by international terms, the largest number of which was given by
the Latin language.
As a result of the scientific and technological progress of the 20th century, numerous
new international terms or Latinisms appeared, used in new meanings. For example:
facsimile
,
radioactive
, etc. Along with Latin scientific terms, Greek terms also penetrated into
the vocabulary of the English language, the influence of which was of great importance. The
Greek scientific and terminological tradition still has a strong influence on English
terminology. Examples of Greek scientific terms include words such as
philosophy
,
analysis
,
synthesis
, etc. The terminological layers of the English vocabulary stock are constantly being
enriched by words made up of Greek and Latin morphemes. Hundreds of chemical,
botanical, biological and other terms have been developed from Latin and Greek roots
[Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Y., Sankin A.A., 1979; 112].
In addition to classical languages, numerous scientific terms were borrowed into
English from other languages, from French for instance. As Yartseva V.N. writes, English
owes an important part of its lexical composition to the French language [Yartseva V.N.,
1961; 213].
The largest number of early French scientific terms, which are still in common use,
were introduced by medicine:
medicine
,
pain
,
pulse
, etc. Most of the English legal terms
come from the French language. For example:
justice
,
judgment,
etc. A number of
philological terms were also borrowed from the French language. For example:
prose
,
chapter
, etc. [Yartseva V.N., 1961; 212]. The word
science
is borrowed from the French
language. Due to the fact that “it became fashionable for the English nobility to
intersperse English speech with French words, some individual French words could
penetrate into the English language. Hence, it is clear the borrowing of exclamations,
adverbs, curses and swear words. For example:
sure
“of course, undoubtedly”
[Savodnik V., 1994; 17].
A certain number of scientific terms have been borrowed into English from
German. Especially a lot of calcified words and expressions are borrowed from the
terminology of classical German philosophy and scientific socialism. For example:
class,
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struggle
,
surplus, value
, etc. Fully German loanwords are the terms:
zinc
,
cobalt, bismuth
(chemical terms). In addition to chemical and physical terms, terms of the humanities,
in particular, philology, were borrowed from the German language. For example:
ablaut
,
umlaut
.
The English literary language has borrowed some scientific terms from the Russian
language. For example:
informatics
, etc.
A number of scientific terms have penetrated into the vocabulary of the English
language from the Scandinavian languages. For example:
outlaw
(a legal term),
tungsten
(a chemical term),
saga
(a philological term), etc.
Due to the genetic similarity of the lexical composition of the Old English and
Scandinavian languages, although the initial borrowing process was the same as in any
other case of the lexical influence of one language on another, ultimately, in cases of
etymological doublets, the whole thing came down to the phenomena of phonetic
substitutions. Etymological Anglo-Scandinavian doublets are the result of various forms of
influence of Scandinavian languages on the English language [Shveytser A.D., 1971; 99].
In the categorical apparatus, the influence of foreign language word-formation
means on the functioning and development of vocabulary based on the material of the
English language is systematized in a polycoordinate way. In the process of
systematization, four relevant theoretical and linguistic patterns are substantiated.
1. The internal and external history of the language, as well as their interaction, is
determined by a system of general development trends, largely contrasting with each
other. They are implemented on comparable sections of the language continuum,
including in the same chronotype.
2.
In the “external history of language”, contrasting
tendencies are balanced. Thus,
two contemporaries, W. Tyndale and T. Mohr, have different correlating attitudes. The
first preserved the original national basis of the English language
–
according to
A.
Gardiner, “saved it from a foreign language flood” [Gardiner A., 1950; 78], for example,
when translating the New Testament. The second enriched English with appropriate
borrowings
–
in particular, when translating his “Utopia”, written in Latin. The same
correlation is observed both earlier and now (from the XI to the XXI centuries)
–
that is, it
has a cross-cutting character. It should also be defined with certain clarifications in the
development of other languages.
3.
The interaction of the “external and internal history of language” is also
characterized by the mutual correlation of contrasting trends. Their speakers are usually
linguistic personalities with high linguistic and general cultural authority. The correlation
of two mutually prepared trends is most significant for this sphere: the introduction of
neologisms and the revival of outdated vocabulary. They can be represented both by
different native speakers, in a differentiated way, and by one, integratively. For example,
speech practice, theoretical and linguistic judgments of the creator of neologisms
J. Chaucer; reviving the archaisms of J. Milton; integrating these tendencies of
W. Shakespeare. In the future, this correlation of trends is developing
–
up to the present
time, with a distinct systemically determined perspective.
4. The
category “system pressure” (Meshkov
O.D.) has significant explanatory
power for these processes [Meshkov O.D., 1985; 187]. The development of lexical
composition turns out to be associated with the influence of one tendency on the
activation of another
–
and, further, on the change of one’s own quality. For the analysis
of derivational models, it is necessary to take into account this trend of dynamics.
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Thus, the borrowing of Gallicisms had a negative character for the development of
the English language at the beginning of the XI century. During the century, internal laws
actualized a contrasting trend
–
the “self
-
preservation” of the original vocabulary was
revealed, the return of a number of lost units (previously displaced by Latin words).
Destructive borrowing, therefore, is internally correlated with other processes:
both with the strengthening of the native vocabulary and with constructive borrowing. In
this paradoxical way, the position justified, in particular, by V.N.
Yartseva: “One should
not think that the history of language is only the result of spontaneous creativity of
nameless masses of speakers. At all times there have been talented masters of the artistic
word, and in all periods the internal laws of language development have been in effect”
[Yartseva V.N., 1961; 286].
The verb
to demon
is an indicative of this. It was initially superseded by the
borrowing to condemn in both its meanings: “1. condemn somediv to” and “2. to have
an opinion”. Later, it returned to its first meaning.
French borrowings, unlike Scandinavian borrowings, were specific terms
associated with new concepts brought by the Normans. Most of them have remained on
the periphery of the vocabulary and are particularly distinguished in the English
dictionary by their structural and phonetic features: they form a large group of many
complex words, typical mainly for literary and scientific language, and are characterized
by a special word-formation structure [Salokhiddinov G.S., 1975; 22].
Moreover, French borrowings could have completely retreated upon the return of
the original units. Thus, under the “onslaught” of the primordial
friendship
, the Gallicism
amity
was lost to it after a short use in English. Due to the fact that “it became fashionable
for the English nobility to intersperse English speech with French words, some individual
French words could penetrate into the English language. Hence, it is clear the borrowing
of exclamations, adverbs, curses and swear words. For example:
sure
“of course,
undoubtedly” [Savodnik V., 1994; 17].
It should be noted that the wealth of synonymy of the English language is
associated with the abundance of foreign borrowings, especially French. The above
synonymous pairs, consisting of an English word and a French loan word, represent a
characteristic feature of the English vocabulary. In many cases, English-French synonyms
are differentiated in the sense that the English word is more common and colloquial, and
the French word is more formal and literary, but when the French loan is more colloquial
and ordinary, and the English word becomes poetic or archaic [Zveginsev V.A., 1953; 23].
Already at the beginning of the XII century, the foreign language influence became
more active again: it was during this period that about 40 percent of borrowings came
from French, which are relevant for Modern English. But it is activated in a different
capacity. It correlates with the flourishing of the national basis of English, meets its
organic semantic needs. See examples such as:
parliament, taste, copy.
The interaction of vocabulary with foreign-language derivational models and
elements is representative of the manifestation of these trends. The following unities are
characteristic: the primordial root/motivating base/+borrowed affix. For example:
drinkable
;
shepherdess
.
In the studied object space, the formation of new words from native Germanic
bases using foreign affixes is characteristic. External factors that have a certain impact on
the functioning and development of the vocabulary of a language are foreign language
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word-formation means. Although many researchers, including English (J. McKnight,
X. Bradley, even O. Jespersen) until recently assumed that the enrichment and
development of the English dictionary occurred almost exclusively at the expense of
lexical borrowings. The above-
mentioned characteristic unities “primordial
root/motivating basis/+borrowed affix” are a cross
-cutting feature of the English lexicon.
See examples of OE
–
ME
–
NE periods, respectively:
fiscere
“fisherman”
–
trustee
“guardian”
–
motor-driven
“powered by an engine”.
Derivative vocabulary, i.e. a set of words created once with the help of word-
formation tools, occupies a very prominent place in the lexicon. In developed languages,
it usually prevails over non-derivative, making up, as a rule, at least 60% of lexemes. The
subsystem of economic nominations is indicative: it is here that, for natural reasons,
there prevail many non-derivatives, but even derivatives such as
husbandry
;
housewifery
are also found.
In some cases, there is an influence of the French word on the change in the
meaning of the English synonym. Often, in the case of polysemanticism of the English
word, French borrowing contributes to the death of a unique scheme of meaning. For
example, as I.P. Ivanova writes, the English word
demen
meant “to judge, sentence
somediv to prison” and “to have a judgment, an opinion”. After the appearance in the
XIV century of the verb
to condemn
, the first meaning of the verb
demen
disappeared
[Zaliznyak A.A., 2001; 3].
The speech practice of writers, scientists, and public figures is defined in the object
space as an external factor in the development and functioning of vocabulary. The most
prominent of them are: J. Chaucer, J. Wyclef, T. Caxton, W. Tyndale, W. Shakespeare,
T. Mohr, J. Dryden, S. Johnson, W. Scott, M. Twain, W. Longfellow, etc.
–
significantly
contributed to word creation, the establishment and consolidation of the norms of
language, the transformation of the latter into a literary language.
When considering the authorship of individual writers, scientists and public
figures in the field of word creation, it should be borne in mind that for more distant
periods of time it is often difficult to be sure whether a writer, scientist or public figure
created a given word or only introduced it into the literary language for the first time.
Some linguists systematically explain the formation of new words as a result of the
creativity of individuals. In their opinion, the language team should only passively
assimilate and apply their achievements.
The assessment of the contribution of writers to the development of the literary
language was given by V.V.
Vinogradov: “In the style of the writer, according to their
artistic idea, all the linguistic means used by the artists are internally united and
connected. The voice of the whole nation is often heard in the language of the great artist”
[Vinogradov V.V., 1967; 136]. A.S. Gerd speaks specifically about the influence of
literature on the development of the English vocabulary stock. He also believes that “the
authorized version of the Bible served as the main factor in the transformation of the
classical English language” [Gerd
A.S., 1971; 14-22].
The object spaces devoted to the ME and NE periods highlight the role of these and
other English and American figures in the development of the English vocabulary stock.
Thus, J. Chaucer belongs to the strengthening of the position of one of the dialects, its
literary potential. He was the first to prove that the London dialect could be the basis of a
literary language, and skillfully used it. Chaucer’s linguistic prowess turned out to be
correlated with the main objective trends according to which the English language
developed.
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The process of qualitative transformation of the London dialect
–
its acquisition of
the status of a literary language was accelerated by the popularity of Chaucer. The writer
combined the language of the London court with the English vernacular. One of his merits
is the proof of the “sufficiency” of English: after him, a number of poets began to create
literary works only in English (not in Latin or French, as before Chaucer).
The degree of Chaucer’s influence on language correlates with the reflection in his
linguistic practice of objective and at the same time specific trends that had not
previously received systematic conceptualization.
These are two contrasting, complementary trends: towards borrowings and their
replacement with native vocabulary. Both of them are represented in Chaucer. Moreover,
even within the framework of different editions of the same text fragment, which allows a
speaker to systematically, visibly represent the object space under study.
Chaucer’s contribution to the enrichment of vocabulary is due to the fact that he
borrowed words from foreign languages. His “Canterbury Tales” is replete with French
borrowings. According to the observations of O. Jespersen, Chaucer used significantly
more French words than many of his contemporaries. He also anticipated the later line of
foreign-language units. So, he uses the lexeme
to correct
three centuries before
correct
,
used by J. Dryden.
At the same time, in a later revision of his text, Chaucer replaced some French
words with English ones. For example, it is he / like some other authors/ who, when
editing the text, replaces the previously mentioned borrowed
amity
instead of the
primordial
friendship
.
T. Hoccleve, J. Lydgate, and other poets of England of those times in their works
imitated the turns, grammatical forms and style of Chaucer, at the same time
transforming them and thereby contributing to the further development of the English
literary language. They reinforced Chaucer’s Kentish words in their textual activity, using
the units:
kesse
“to kiss”;
besie
/ along with the London
bisie
/ “busy” etc. They also
developed a subsystem of abstract names, including those that have become
characteristic of the English mentality. So, Lydgate was the first to use the word
distrust
–
“doubt, suspicion around 1430.
Since the 14th century, there has been a bi-directional movement in England for the
“perfection” and “purity” of the English language. The vocabulary stock of the English
language has been criticized for its “poverty”. “Critics” and supporters of such views called
for the enrichment of the English language at the expense of classical and new “more
advanced” languages, for example, at the expense of Italian. In the work of supporters of
this position, such units appear as
studio
,
fresco
,
granite
,
volcano
,
stanza
,
canto
.
In this context, John Wycliffe’s work is particularly significant. It had great
linguistic significance, and his role can be compared to that of Chaucer. Wycliffe defended
an original, organic way of improving the English language, which does not coincide with
the enrichment of English vocabulary on the basis other languages. His most important
work was the translation of the Bible into English, completed in 1384. It became a
prerequisite for subsequent translations, primarily by W. Purvey in 1388. The English
texts reflected important linguistic innovations. Among such words one can find
onement
unit created by Wycliffe to translate the Latin
unio
“the fact of education into one whole”.
The same tendency is also characterized by translations of the Latin
presbyter
by the
anglicized unit
priest
(both in Wycliffe and in Purvey).
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All over the world, English is recognized as the universal language of cultural,
business and scientific education communications. Global integration and innovation
processes affect various areas of the world economy [Khamzaev S.A. Gilyazetdinov E.Z.
Sultonova N.A. Samanova Sh.B., 2020; 1080].
CONCLUSION
External factors of language development and functioning are reflected on the
basis of specific laws, both in theoretical and practical issues. Three subsystems serve as
their manifestation: social, socio-cultural impact, realized mainly by lexical borrowings;
the influence of foreign language word-formation means; the influence of the speech
activity of authoritative personalities: first of all, writers, scientists, and public figures.
External factors are determined in unity with the intra-linguistic ones. The
dynamics of trends in the English language development serves as a manifestation of this
theoretical and linguistic regularity. Thus, by the 14th century, the loss of the infinitive
suffix by verbs dramatically reduced the suffix-combinability capabilities of the verb
base. The enrichment of prefixation, mainly of foreign language models, and the
development of lexical borrowings can be correlated with this.
Accordingly, external factors cover the entire conceptual triad of language-speech-
speech activity. The effect of external factors lies in a system of patterns and trends at
various levels. It reflects the direction of interaction, lexical and semantic-stylistic
aspects.
A specific pattern is the bidirectional nature of interlanguage interaction. It is
defined by a system of sound methodological principles and is represented by modern
English. English acts as a source of exceptional influence on other languages, and this is
due, among other factors, to a reflected, enhanced dominant: the language conveys what
it previously experienced so exclusively from other languages.
Such an impact implies differentiation, which is confirmed by the object. Different
source languages are defined relative to English as carriers of influence of a different
nature. Thus, since the middle of the XI century, French has been mainly a means of
lexical and semantic expansion for English. Scandinavian languages since the end of the
tenth century are main sources of stylistic synonymy. This is due both to their potential
and to the needs and specifics of the stages of the historical development of the English
language.
It is external factors that can determine the processes that are important for the
development and enrichment of the language. On the basis of this process there were
formed variants of this very language. Thus, the formation of the American variant of the
English language in relation to the British represents this line of development: this type
of variation is initially due to external factors: socio-historical and socio-cultural.
The lexical theoretical and linguistic regularity is the correlation between the
displacement of the original vocabulary and the preservation of the qualitative certainty
of the language. A number of lexical subsystems are displaced by the interaction between
external and internal factors of language functioning and development. Repression,
however, does not prevent the preservation of the qualitative certainty of the language.
It is representative that the English language did not cease to be such when most
of the content of the original lexical subsystems were replaced by French in the
XI
–
XIII centuries.
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This pattern makes it possible to differentiate between more and less significant
characteristics of the vocabulary. Filling a subsystem with native vocabulary is a less
significant characteristic, and the ratio of subsystems is a more significant feature of the
qualitative certainty of the language.
Semantic-stylistic and theoretical-linguistic regularity is correlations between
various trends. The main ones are the “split” type of lexical substitutions under external
influence/one of the meanings is usually displaced from the original nomination due to
borrowing/; actualization of certain lines of semantic and stylistic development
/enrichment of abstract vocabulary, scientific terminology, poeticism/; expansion of the
semantic potential of the vocabulary.
The dynamics of such an external factor as the speech activity of authoritative
linguistic personalities (writers, scientists, politicians) is natural. This type of influence
on the development and functioning of language is closely connected with the literary
works of J. Chaucer, W. Shakespeare, J. Dryden up to the masters of the XX century and
beyond. There are two main trends in dynamics: towards stabilization and towards
renewal.
Stabilization is realized by the formation of norms of the literary language, taking
into account the printed fixation (W. Caxton, from 1475 onwards to the present),
strengthening the London dialect as the basis of the common English language. The
renewal is determined anthropocentric, in connection with the individual linguistic
factors of functioning. It is associated with occasionalisms, selection in the use of
linguistic means. The dynamics of the two trends is realized by the transition of the
individual into the national (represented by the consolidation of conversives based on
the authority of W. Shakespeare, who owns their authorship, and other correlative
processes).
Socio-political changes in the life of English society are an important external
factor that had a certain impact on the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English
literary language with words borrowed from French, Scandinavian and Latin languages
during the corresponding political and social changes (Norman invasion and
Scandinavian conquests, Christianization, the introduction of printing, etc.).
External factors that also had a certain impact on the enrichment of the English
vocabulary which are the borrowing of words from such classical languages as Italian,
Dutch, Spanish, German, Russian and many other languages of the world into the English
literary language.
The development of science and technology has caused the appearance in the
vocabulary stock of the English literary language a significant number of scientific and
technical terms borrowed from other languages (from classical languages, such as
French, German, Dutch, Russian, Arabic, etc.), as well as penetrated from the American
variant of the English language. This external factor affects the English vocabulary
directly.
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