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AND HIS CONTRIBUTION TO TURKO-
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
Donohon Abdugafurova, Ph.D
Wake Forest University
North Carolina, USA
October 3, 2024
Abstract
Can one person be a founder of a language?
-
(844 906/1441
the formation and development of the Uzbek literary language because of his
voluminous literary legacy in Chaghatay Turkic, a precursor language of Uzbek.
He is a
zullisonayn,
or a bilingual, and wrote in Persian and Turkic. In addition to
911/1469 1506). His writings and patronage
for the literary production elevated the status of the Turkic language. He was the
first literary figure who stood against the discrimination of the Turkic language and
advocated for its deserved status. As a poet, vizier, mayor, and Sufi philosopher,
life, his statesmanship and literary heritage this paper evaluates his contribution to
the Turko-Islamic civilization through his literary and philanthropic legacies.
Olibmen taxti farmonimga oson,
Cherik chekmay Xitodin to Xuroson.
Xuroson demakim, Sherozu Tabriz,
Ki qilmishdir nayi kilkim shakarrez.
With no force, I took control of Khurasan and
China,
Not only Khurasan, but also Sheraz and Tabriz
Whose flutes make my tongue sweeten.
Every Turk loves my words, not only Turk
but also Turkmen
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Emas oson bu maydon ichra turmoq, Nizomiy panjasiga
panja urmoq,
It is not easy to stand in this field, and attempting to fight back Nizam
While facing a lion, you should be a lion or at least a tiger.
Introduction.
The unifying power of Arabic after the advent of Islam in the
Umayyad period (661-750), and transition of power to the Persian language in later
Abbasid period (750-1258) created linguistic cannons of high cultures. Scholars
beyond the Middle East were able to travel and study freely in the territories of
Dar al-Islam
, and were well versed in Arabic and Persian. The birthplace became
less important to the individuals who took part in the intellectual and mercantile
lives of the caliphates. This phenomenon served as a main justification to place
these languages into high level of hierarchy, leaving other languages at the margin.
With the same token, Arabs and Persians were considered to be noble people,
where Turks were servants with their military qualifications. Even in the
Mamluk
soldiers were stressed among other features. The administration faced an ethno-
specific division such as Arabs as rulers, Persians as administrators, and Turks as
soldiers. Although the reliance of political entities on military strategies assured
only in fighting, relegated the intellectual contributions of Turkic people in Islamic
Civilizations to the side.
Here, it is prudent to remember Central Asian scholars who contributed to
the development of Islamic Civilizations. Two of the six respected Hadith
compilers,
Isma`il al-Bukh
-
al-Q
al-Zamakhshar (d.1144.) were from Central Asia. The influential theologian
Mansur Muhammad al-
n al-
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Ab al-Hasan al-Marghin
Nasr al-Muhammad
al-F
rationalist philosopher Ab `Ali Ibn Sina (d.1037, known in the West as
Avicenna), an encyclopedic scholar
Ray
ammad ibn A mad Al-
are important figures in the history of Islamic civilization who
came from that region.
I am far from claiming that they were all Turks. However, they were all born
and obtained initial education in the region. Somehow, in the history of Islamic
civilizations they became Persians. Claiming every great mind as Persian is as
insulting as the claim that every Turk is a brutal killer without a brain. If scholars
wrote in Arabic or Persian, do they become Arabs or Persians? They were part of
broader networks of mercantile and learning environment that the empire
established, which served to make the cities of Transoxiana part of the heartland of
Islamic civilizations. The understanding that Turks are only capable of fighting,
attitudes toward Turkic cultures and languages. A Central Asian poet, writer,
politician and linguist and mystic,
-
(1441-1501)
stood against such understandings and discriminations about the Turkic language
and strived to show the capacities of it. As a result of his mission, he became the
greatest representative of Chagatai language and literature.
The prominent scholar of Islamic Studies Marshall Hodgson proposes the
concept of
Islamicate
culture to create inclusiveness of Islam as a faith to the wide
variety of contexts.
37
However, the term is limited, and serves best when talking
about different cultures and heritages under the unifying faith. The term
Islamicate
does not highlight ethnic differentiation sufficiently. At the face of discussions of
Arabic and Persian cultures as bases and high cultures of Islamic Civilizations, in
37
Marshal Hodgson, Venture of Islam,
Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam
(Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2009), p.57-60.
Another Central Asian scholar Adeeb Khalid proposed a term
Islamism
existence in the face of modernism. See
Khalid, Adeeb.
Islam After Communism: Religion and Politics in Central
Asia
. (University of California Press, 2008), 13.
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this paper, I emphasize the ethnic dimension and prefer to use the term Turco-
Asian culture of Khurasan, Turkic language, and other elements that make up the
civilization. For doing so, I turn into the life of a fifteenth century poet, statesman
and a Sufi
-
was aware of discriminations against the Turkic language and
deliberately fought back against this ideology with his pen. Through his assiduous
works, the Turkic language gained a special recognition in his time and later on.
called the old Uzbek language. Today
Uzbek literary language. Although one person cannot be a founder of a specific
language, the contribution of a person can highlight the potentiality of linguistic,
writing in Uzbek is the indication of the political status of the Turkic speaking
aristocrats. The king
, the grandson of Tamerlane, wrote in this
(
) and pure thought (
sof idrok
).
38
poetic talent, voluminous production in Chagatai Turkic, and the
state patronage made his voice louder and stronger, turning him into one of the
influential figures in the history of Turco-Islamic Civilization and of the
is highlighted by his Pan-Turkic stance especially in literary production. This paper
contribution to the Turko-Islamic civilization through his literary and philanthropic
legacies
s.
him perform philanthropic activities. In his philanthropic efforts, we see the great
38
Abduqodir Hayitmetov,
-Tanqidiy Qarashalari
Critical Views] (Tashkent: Fan, 1959), 44.
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-1476) can be
categorized into three areas: intention of maintaining peace, sponsoring public
Waqfiya
that
he fought for the above-mentioned causes as he could, and in the occasions where
he was not able to, he asked the support of the king.
kingdom. Therefore, he was involved in the patronage of public buildings. He was
the initiator of
Nizamiyya
and
Ihlosiya
madrasas,
Xalosiya
Khanaqah [a Sufi
corner], and
Shifoiyya
hospital, in Herat
,
and
Khusraviyya
madrasa in Marv.
urban planning and infrastructure. In fact, the city of Herat became one of the
developed cities in his time. Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur (d.1530) spoke highly
39
Historian Kwandamir lists
40
for Sultan Husayn, his inheritance that was confiscated by Abu Said had been
returned to him. He used the income from his lands to these philanthropic cases.
voluntarily paid the Sultan different amounts.
41
Kwandamir writes that in order to
42
scholars who became well-known in their fields. The musicians, Qulmuhammad,
39
Babur Zahiriddin Muhammad,
Baburnoma
(Tashkent: Yulduzcha, 1990), p.154.
40
Kwandamir,
Makorim al ahloq
p.66-68.
41
Babur, 154.
42
Kwandamir
,
Tashkent, 1948, p.60.
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became well known painters.
43
Herat holds a special place in the development of
miniature paintings genre of Islamic art. The literary life of Herat was flourishing
at this time. Poets such as Binoiy, Shayhim Suhayli, Kwaja Osafi Binoiy,
musicians such as Hasan Noiy, Kwaja Abdulla Marvori, Qulmuhammad Udiy,
Shahquli Ghijjakiy, historians Mirkhand and Kwandamir, and other several
the historian Mirkhand (d.1498) to write a biographical and historical work of
prophets and kings,
Rawdat al-
-anbiya wal-muluk wal-khulafo
[The
Ikhlasiyya
-
volume book.
44
was involved. He lists nine categories based on
Waqfiya,
a documentary book of
wide range of areas that require strong public relations skills: a) celebrations of
holidays, b) foreign affairs, such as receiving and seeing off foreign officials, c)
emergency situations, such as riots and border problems, d) anti-bribery affairs, e)
anti-plundering and looting, e) court and justice, f) investigation of complaint
letters from different districts, g) amnesty, and h) religious affairs.
45
These state
43
Babur, 154.
Waqfiya
. However, the name of the
khanaqah Xalosiya
is written as
Ihlosiya
mixing the of the names of
khanaqah
with madrasa would be inconsiderate mistake to the historian. See Shuhrat
Sirojiddinov,
-Tipologik, Teksicologic Tahlili
Comparative-Typological and Textual Analysis of Primary Sources], (Tashkent: Akademnashr, 2011), 210.
45
Sirojiddinov, p.67.
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officer, orator and a leader.
.
Another important element that highlights the contribution of
-Islamic Civilization is his literary heritage that served as a
vehicle to deliver his agenda of improving the status of the Turkic language. Sultan
language (he) gave a soul,
ruh
46
His mention of Jesus indicates
revive the Turkic language that was considered almost dead because of limited
works. However, his categorization does not seem systematic. I would argue that
sub-categorizations, or poetry
Turkic and Persian,
ghazals
,
dostons
, and prose
based on their contribution to the fields of literature, linguistics, Islam/theology,
history and Sufism. The comprehensive detailed knowledge about these fields
religion and history.
Literature.
Mezon al-awzan
[The
measurement of metrics] and
Mufradat
also,
Risolai Muammo,
(about
muammo
genre) stand as theoretical explanations of the art of metrics in poetry writing and a
Devon. Risola
(Tashkent: Sharq, 1991) p.161.
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special genre.
Mufradat,
written in Persian, is about the literary genre
muammo
(riddle
)
.
He discusses the rules of
writing and solving of
muammo
. In writing
Mizan al- awzan
influenced by the works of Khalil ibn Ahmad (ca. 786 or 791), Shams Qays
(fl.1204-
aruz
,
work is considered to be the first work which is written in Uzbek. It explains the
aruz
, and the metrics of quatrains.
Khamsa
high rank in Uzbek literature. His goal of creating
khamsa
in Turkic was realized
in 1483-
of the Turkic language as a worthy of writing literature. Khamsa includes five
epics:
Hayrat al-abrar, Farh
and
Saddi Iskandariy.
qualities of the Turkic language. It consists of fifty-
provided Islamic understanding of cosmos, nature, human being, and perfection
Khamsa
tradition to the Turkic language and gave his protagonists Turkic characteristics.
The five epics that are included in
Khamsa
are independent poems in their
own right. It illustrates the cultural and historical life of 15
th
century Khurasan and
-
about an ideal king. People do not have mercy even for their keens. Prince
Abdullatif killed his father Ulughbek, Sultan
ideal kings. He dedicates the fifth poem of the Khamsa,
Saddi Iskandari
, to prince
Badiuzzamon, the son of
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Nafahat al-Uns
and named it
Nasoyim al-
Muhabbah
. His translation was beyond verbatim making the work more of an
independent quality.
made additional entries making the overall number reach 770. He includes saints of
Turkic origin as well as of India. It is considered one of the important sources of
Sufi literature. In writing
Nasoyim al- muhabbah,
of
tazkira
47
Among his works, the treatise
Majalis al-Nafais
(1490-92) provides
information about biography of poets. It includes 359 entries about Persian and
advantages and faulty lines. It is an example of
tabaqat
literature that provides
information about biographies and important works of poets. Because of these
features, the work has an historical value as well as literary significance.
Linguistics. Muhokomah al-Lughatayn,
is an apologetic writing to the common perception that the Turkic language is only
poetry. He argues that Turkic possess qualities of refined language and provides
examples of one hundred verbs that Persian does not possess to deliver subtle
differences. He compares the potentiality of Persian and Turkic in terms of
comprehensive grammar, expanse of vocabulary and delivering nuances of the
provides detailed explanations of hundred Turkic verbs that can explain the
degrees of the actions that the Persian language lacks. The important point about
this work is that most of those verbs that he provides are still in use in the Uzbek
Abu Rayhan Beruni Institute of Manuscripts has over fifty manuscript of Tazkira al- awliya, the earliest belonging
to 802/1399 (MS # 13253/1) and the latest belonging to the late XIX century. See Abdumajid Madraimov,
Fariduddin Attor va Uning Tazkirat al-
Tazkira al-awliyo
(Tashkent:
Gafur Gulom nomidagi matbaa uyi, 2013), 8.
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language today. He also discusses the role of Turkic language in social, political
and literary lives.
48
History.
is about ancient kings, their remarkable deeds
Shahname
Tarikhi Tabari
as
main sources for his work.
is another work about the
Hippocrates, and Plato in this latter work. The Russian scholar Nikolay Konrad
ibn al-waqt
achievements and develops further with his own approach that is the result of his
the Eastern renaissance.
49
Waqfiya
is an important source since it
Mahbub al-Qulub
, a prose that is
work. Khayitmetov argues that this work is regarded as important as Shaikh
Chor
Maqola
.
50
Sufism.
as a penname to his Turkic poems and
F n for his Persian poems indicate his keen interest in music and Sufism. He was
48
had 3 sons, Japhes, Sam, Ham. Japhes is the forefather of Sam Persians whereas Ham is of Hindus. Slightly different
than three sons.
49
Tafakkur
, Tashkent, 1997, N1. 38-42.
50
,
Uzbek National Encyclopedia
(Tashkent, Dictionaries, 2001),
p.335.
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exposed to
Mantiq al-Tayr
of Far d al-D
r (d. 1220) at a very early age and
was moved by the meaning of the work. He started contemplating on the
symbolism and the hidden meaning of what he read and became introvert. His
. However, taking away of
heart.
51
Later in his life, he wrote
Lis n al-Tayr
[Language of Birds] as an answer
r showed great talent in writing about birds in their language. By
implies inner meaning of the work which not everydiv is capable of
deciphering.
52
Uzbek scholar Vahob Rahmonov argues that
Lis n al-Tayr
serves in
two ways. It is a scientific manual for a Sufi aspirant, who is looking for God, and
it can also serve as an aesthetic literary work for an ordinary reader.
53
The main argument of the work is the Sufi concept of
wahdat al-wujud
, or the stages of reaching to
human perfection. Through challenges and spiritual trainings, the birds realized
that they found the great bird within themselves.
-Tayr
is not only a literary piece of Sufi literature but also a
historical work that includes some information about the literary heritage of
-Tayr
. The seven consecutive valleys,
Talab
[Quest],
Ishq
[Love],
[Gnostics],
[Mindlessness],
[Oneness],
51
,
Lison al-tayr
52
Ibid.,23. The prophet Solomon had a special quality to understand the language of animals.
53
,
Lison al-
tayr (Tashkent:
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Hayrat
[Wonder] and
prepare a Sufi to the unification with God. Since the
work is about Spiritual journey it symbolizes the ending point of the life, also the
54
journey as a Sufi and describes the challenges that a Sufi has to endure to reach
God.
.
highlight the power of poetry.
55
,
-
Bidaya
Navadir al- Nihaya
was composed.
organized all of his poetry into a
Hazoyin al-
an anthology of his poetry
.
The collection has four symbolic references to life stages.
-Sighar
, [the
Wonders of Childhood]
Nawadir Shabab
[Rarities of Youth]
-Wasat
[Beauty of Middle Age],
and
Fawayid al-Kibar
[Benefits of Seniority]. Because of
or four
anthologies. This
previous
. These kinds of exhaustive
were compiled only by
Khusrav Dehlavi of Hindustan. The important point about the names of this
is that they should not be understood in chronological order. For example, the
poems that included in
-Sighar
young poet. Each section consists of 650 ghazals totaling 2600. Besides ghazals,
sixteen other genres of classic literature such as
and
muhammas
,
was published in Tehran (Iran, 1963), Tashkent (Uzbekistan, 1965) and Dushanbe
volume showing his zeal to improve the status of Turkic as a literary language.
54
Lisonal-tayr
, 106.
55
Khayrat al-
41.
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.
times as an imitator or a mere translator of Persian literature. European and
includes examples of
and
Muhakamat al-Lugatayn
in his
literature collection. I. N. Berezin includes several examples of in his Turk
Khristomatiya
. Other Russian scholars N. I. Ilminski, V.VVelyaminov Zernov,
B.B. Berthold, E. Bertels, S. N Ivanov, N. I. Konrad, M. Belen, E, Brown wrote
scholarly monographs and articles
.
Muhakamat al-Lugatayn
was partially
translated into English by Robert Devereux. In
A History of Inner Asia,
scholar
Svat Soucek talks about history of Transoxiana [
] and includes a
role in the 15th century Central Asian political
and intellectual life under the discussion of Temurid intellectual life.
56
Persian language. Other scholars E. Brown, French scholar Buva also share the
same view. The scholars Rahim Vohidov and Eshonqulov argue that there were
prowess, and second, the traditional themes of
Khamsa
seemed repetition to
conclude that he was an imitator and a translator.
57
The superficial conclusion
Mantiq al-Tayr
and
Lishan al-Tayr
, despite being inspired
his work.
58
Svat Soucek,
A History of Inner Asia
, Cambridge University Press, 2000), 148-149.
57
Rahim Vohidov and Husniddin Eshonqulov,
Tarixi. Tashkent: Adabiyot), 203.
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59
Naqshbandiyyah
order
,
because most of the rulers of that period belonged to that
shaykh
after Kwaja Ahrar
60
him
a perfect human being.
The Muslim reformists of early the 20
th
1919, the first Uzbek Professor Abdurauf Fitrat published excerpts from
Hayrat al-
Abrar,
the first epic of
Khamsa
under the name of
Humanity
formed. Uzbek scholars Ozod Sharofiddinov, Sadriddin Ayniy, Vohid Zohidov,
Izzat Sulton, Aziz Qayumov, Porso Shamsiyev, Natan Mallaev, Suyuma Ghanieva,
Abduqodir Khayitmetov, Alibek Rustamov, and A.bdurashid Abdugafurov
Besides historical works, literary coverage and theatrical depictions of
Soul
Nawoiyning Qalb Daftari
permeated into the public discourse. Plays
(by Izzat Sultan and
Uyghun, 1945, 1948),
Iskandar
(1991), musicals
(I.
Mahsumov, Yunus Rajabiy and S. Jalil, 1967),
Farhad and Shirin
(1937), operas
Layli and Majnoon
(1942
)
,
Dilorom
(1958), ballet show
Suhayl and Mehri
highlight the ideological Soviet agenda.
58
Bertels argues that Navai followed the classic tradition, at the same time he used his own Turkic elements to the
works. He provides stories about living
shayks
of his time as well as before. See: E. Betels,
,
Leningrad: 1928.
59
Tafakkur
, Tashkent1996 N2. p.71.
60
Ibid., 73.
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proletariate ignoring the spiritual side of his works. The creation of a protagonist
writings was equally ignored due to atheistic ideology. After the independence,
Naqshbandiyyah
order, because he was involved in
worldly affairs, some argue that he had his own
Tariqa
or order. I am far from
a
Naqshbandiy
Ghanji Shakar, a Chishti Sufi.
61
agree that his language is archaic to the contemporary Uzbek language. For
translation approach of any
was really attentive to the word choice.
62
transliteration of Arabic and Persian words into English. He argues that not
63
However, a reader, who is not familiar with Arabic and Persian, cannot distinguish
the letters and may prefer less diacritical markings. By the same logic, some of the
61
Nasoyim al muhabba
, p. 181-182.
62
Abdurashid Abdugafurov,
Byuk Beshlik Saboqlari
[Lessons of Great Quinary] (Tashkent: Adabiyot), p.66.
63
Marshal Hodgson,
Venture of Islam,
Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam
(Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2009), p.8-20.
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many simplified prose interpretations are published in Uzbek. This approach is an
attempt to bring
the public rather than keeping his legacy at distance.
Conclusion.
In the Turco Islamic Civilizations, the Herat intellectual milieu
in the fifteenth century has its own rank. It is a place where the Turkic philosopher,
level, established peace treaties under his tenure as a minister in Temurid king
lives, development of the homeland and attention to the intellectual production,
people. The historian Kwandamir includes seventeen stories and ten anecdotes
Makorim al-Akhlaq
.
64
a wise chancellor, poet philosopher, protector of ordinary people. There are stories
,
,
65
legacy became widespread among Turkic and Persian speaking people after his
death. It served as an important catalyst for new literary productions. Not only
Uzbek poets, but also Tadjik, Azerbaijan, Turkman and Tatar poets consider
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,
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,
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Khayrat al-abror
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Nasoyim al muhabba
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,
al-lughatain
, trans. Robert Devereux. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1966
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Uzbek Tili va Adabiyoti,
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, Tashkent: Sharq, 1991
Betels, Evgeniy.
, Leningrad: 1928.
Hayitmetov, Abduqodir
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Hodgson, Marshall GS.
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, Tashkent, 1997, N 1. 38-42.
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