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American Journal Of Biomedical Science & Pharmaceutical Innovation
(ISSN
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ABSTRACT
Stomata are small microscopic openings found on the surface of the leaf and stem. Surrounding the stoma is a pair of
guard cells. The stomata are a manifestation of stress in the skin. They work to regulate the flow of gases into and out
of the leaf. The stomata are affected in terms of their development and opening by environmental changes, as
changing environmental conditions affect their response. Stomata: Environmental factors, such as temperature,
carbon dioxide concentration, relative humidity, and light, are factors that play an important role in the development
and opening of stomata.
KEYWORDS
Microscopic, Skin, Stomata, Environmental conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Research Article
THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON STOMATAL
DEVELOPMENT: A REVIEW
Submission Date:
Aug 02, 2024,
Accepted Date:
Aug 07, 2024,
Published Date:
Aug 12, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajbspi/Volume04Issue08-03
Evan Abdul Rahman Hamzah
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq
Noor Adnan Abdullah
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq
Rand Salwan Numan
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq
Humam Saadi Hussein
Biology Department, College of Sciences, University of Tikrit, Iraq
Email: - humam.s.hussein@tu.edu.iq
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ajbspi
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
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The stoma is the microscopic pore present on the
surface of the plant leaf as well as the stem [1]. The
stoma consists of guard cells surrounding it, which
work to close and open the stomata [2]. The stomata
regulate the evaporation of the amount of water and
the preservation of carbon dioxide by controlling the
work of the guard cells [3]. The spread of water
evaporation through the stomata depends on the
dimensions of the stomata as well as their density, and
through the concentration difference between the
outer circumference and the inner circumference of
the leaf, water is evaporated through the difference in
mole fraction of the leaf and the air, and through the
change in the conductivity, opening, and density of the
stomata, water absorption is regulated, that is, by
reducing or Increasing the stomata's opening and flow
area, thus controlling the spread[4]. The shape and size
of the stomata, as well as its number, vary according to
the type of plant [5]. It is possible that there is an
adaptive relationship with the environmental
conditions that surround the plant, through the
change that occurs in the growth and opening of the
stomata, meaning that the growth and opening of the
stomata is adaptive, and this includes the size and
shape of the stomata. Genetic factors have an effect
on the number and density of stomata, as well as their
distribution on the surface of the leaf [6]. Plants can
adaptation to external factors because they are stable,
and this adaptation comes from changing the stomata,
their function and distribution. In order to obtain an
increase in the rate of photosynthesis, the guard cells
emit a different environmental signal that must be
responded to in order to improve gas exchange in
plants. Thus, the process of photosynthesis will
increase. When climate conditions change, the
stomata work to adjust the closure of the stomata.in
order to reduce water loss and reduce its absorption
carbon dioxide [7]. The concentration of carbon
dioxide, as well as the rate of light flow, are two
environmental factors that are sensed by guard cells
and work to coordinate the opening of stomata [8].
There are previous studies that have confirmed that
stomata are sensitive to carbon dioxide through the
synthesis of abscisic acid resulting from drought [9].
Guard cells work to regulate the opening of the
stomata [10]. Dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous
plants, with the exception of grass plants, have kidney-
shaped stomata [11]. As for herbs, they have dumbbell-
shaped stomata. Controlling the opening and closing
of the stomata is important to protect plants from
excessive water loss as well as a lack of concentration
[2]. Carbon dioxide: The role of guard cells is significant
in protecting the plant from changing environmental
conditions, including temperatures, humidity, water
shortages, hormones, and sugars [5]. There are
channels in the plasma membrane that regulate ions
and transporters, as well as pumps found in the guard
cells [12].
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Figure (1) Kidney-shaped stomata on the right and dumbbell-shaped stomata on the left.
Forms of stomata in leaves
The epidermis of mature leaves generally consists of
three types of cells: guard cells, hairs, and pavement
cells [13]. Stomata are found on both surfaces of the
leaf, and their presence may be limited to the upper
surface of the leaf [14]. The density of the stomata may
be greater on the adaxial surface of the leaf, and this
works to prevent water loss [15]. Because this surface
of the leaf is less exposed to heat, the pattern of
stomata in monocot plants is of the regular type [16].
As for dicotyledon plants, the type of stomata is
random [9]. The mature stomata are separated from
each other by a human cell, and this works to perform
the function of the stomata in the best way that the
cells need [16]. It ensures that ions and water are
exchanged with the surrounding cells [11].
The effect of light on the development of stomata
Light is considered an important environmental factor
as it affects the growth and development of plants.
Plants need light in order to carry out the process of
photosynthesis, as well as to regulate plant growth
[17]. Photoreceptors control photosynthesis and
development through light [18]. Phytochromes absorb
red light, with wavelengths reaching 600 Nanometers
[12]. Far-red light has wavelengths of up to 730
nanometers [3]. Phototropin and cryptochromates
mediate the effect of ultraviolet rays, as well as blue
light [19]. An increase in light intensity leads to an
increase in the number of stomata, while an increase in
light intensity does not affect the area of stomata [20].
Regulating the opening of stomata according to their
response to light is very important for crop production
[8]. The change in the voltage of the plasma membrane
that results from light has been observed, and this
works to change the transport of potassium through
the plasma membrane located in the stomata guard
cells on the surface of the leaves. Both blue and red-
light work on stimulating the opening of the stomata
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through two paths [21]. Red light stimulates the
opening of the stomata through photosynthesis,
specifically in the middle layer, as well as the
chloroplasts present in the guard cells [20]. This leads
to reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide
present between the cells. That is, red light acts as a
signal as well as a source of energy [6]. The response
of the guard cells to the rate of decrease in carbon
dioxide present between the cells and the direct
response of the plastids present in the guard cells
results in the opening of stomata resulting from red
light [13]. The response to blue light of the guard cells
is considered independent of the process of
photosynthesis [22]. Changes in the light spectrum
affect the behavior of the gap, and this change is
considered a result of the daily change in the light
spectrum, as well as the shading of trees or leaves at
sunrise or sunset [17]. The sun is near the horizon or
below the horizon, and this leads to a smaller solar
angle, and thus the rays travel a greater distance
through air [15].
The effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on
the opening of stomata
Plants work to coordinate the flow of carbon dioxide in
order to complete the process of photosynthesis [23].
This is accompanied by a loss of water vapor through
the pores in the stomata [21]. When there is an increase
in the level of concentration of carbon dioxide present
in the atmosphere, the stomata It will close, and this
affects the growth of the plant and the temperature of
the leaf, as well as the efficiency of water absorption
[24]. That is, the concentration of carbon dioxide
affects the opening of the stomata, and it also works
to regulate its growth through the stomata [12].
Approximately 40% of carbon dioxide enters the leaves
of plants during one year [25]. It is affected the process
of photosynthesis changes the stomatal indicator that
occurs in response to carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, and this works to change the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
[26]. The reason for global warming is the continuous
increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere,
and
this
increase
affects
the
development of terrestrial plants [27]. When the
concentration of carbon dioxide continues, it leads to
a negative effect on the development of stomata in the
leaves [28]. That is, the relationship is inverse between
the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide and
the development of stomata [29]. The greater the
concentration of carbon dioxide, the greater the
decrease in the stomatal index. That is, the response of
plants to changes in the concentration of carbon
dioxide [30]. The greater the flow of carbon dioxide.
Water and materials are transferred to the guard cells
that surround the pores of the stomata. The opening
of the stoma is regulated [22]. The dissolved potassium
works to regulate the closing of the stoma [31]. This is
done through the guard cells that work on the flow of
materials and water. The guard cells work to control
the movement of the stomata [32]. The increase in the
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concentration of carbon dioxide and abscisic acid
work. On closing the stomata, through studies, it has
been found that there is a convergence between the
pathway of carbon dioxide and abscisic acid, and that
as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, it
stimulates an increase in the concentration of abscisic
acid present in the guarding cells of the stomata, and
thus leads to the closure of the stomata [33].
Stomata and temperature:
Stomata are affected by high temperature, as
temperatures lead to the development of stomata and
their opening, and high temperatures will lead to
preventing the production of stomata [34]. That is,
high temperatures pose a danger to the plant because
they cause water shortages and thermal damage [35].
Plants take several mechanisms to reduce the effect.
High temperatures until the leaves take the form of
elongating their petioles, which works to cool the plant
[36]. The process of transpiration also works to cool
the leaves. The fewer the number of stomata, the more
this indicates a response to high temperatures, which
leads to a decrease in cooling of the plant. Plants
coordinate the process of cooling the leaves through
the process of transpiration in return [37]. It loses its
response to elongation, meaning that high
temperature and the density of stomata are two
factors that control the coordination of the plant’s
response [38]. High temperature affects the process of
photosynthesis,
as
the
Rubisco
(ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate Carboxylase /oxygenase) enzyme has an
important role in the process of photosynthesis [39].
Also, this enzyme is sensitive to high temperatures,
and the more this enzyme is affected by temperature,
the more it has a negative effect [40]. On the activity
of the Krebs cycle, 1-it works more quickly to stop the
action of the Rubisco enzyme, which is active. 2- it
reactivates it more slowly, through the enzyme, which
is sensitive to high temperatures. High temperatures
stimulate the opening of the stomata, and this leads to
coordination between the cooling of the leaves and
the activity of using them [41]. Water for the
movement of guard cells caused by high temperatures,
components that work to open stomata through blue
light [42].
Humidity and stomatal development
Humidity has a close relationship with temperature
because during the saturation process it will increase
as the surrounding air temperature rises, and this
affects the stomata, as they close in response to this
deficit in vapor pressure, that is, less humidity, and this
has an important role in the ability of plants to control
water loss when The environmental conditions
surrounding the plant are dry, as the stomata are
closed to prevent the plant from drying out. When
plants are affected by moisture, it has the ability to
close the stomata. It also has an effect on the density
and size of the stomata [43]. The stomata are sensitive
to air humidity, as they have a high response to
humidity, as high relative humidity increases the size of
the stomata, and this It leads to the expansion of
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leaves, meaning that the density of stomata will
increase in many types of plants due to high humidity
[44]. When an imbalance in humidity occurs, it will
negatively affect the absorption of carbon dioxide and
water loss, leading to the death of the plant [39].
CONCLUSION
The stomata have an important role in balancing the
water loss of plants with the process of
photosynthesis. It is known that the stomata change
their pattern according to the environment in which
the plants are located. They are considered important
organizing centers in the plant leaf and work to
increase the absorption of carbon dioxide so that the
process of photosynthesis can take place, by opening.
When Closing the stomata can reduce water loss
through the process of transpiration, meaning it is very
important for balancing water loss. The process of
photosynthesis stimulates the opening of the stomata
through light, especially red and blue, which work to
open the stomata, while high temperatures prevent
the growth and development of the stomata. As for
humidity, it is an environmental factor that affects
When it decreases, the stomata close, and the higher
the carbon dioxide concentration, the more this leads
to the closure of the stomata, because the relationship
between the stomata and the carbon dioxide
concentration is inverse.
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