American Journal Of Philological Sciences
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VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue02 2025
PAGE NO.
10-16
10.37547/ajps/Volume05Issue02-03
Early medieval ethnic processes in Khorezm oasis in
archaeological and written sources
Lecturer department of history Gulistan State University, Uzbekistan
Received:
04 December 2024;
Accepted:
06 January 2025;
Published:
08 February 2025
Abstract:
The article analyzes the ethnic-cultural relations between the ancient ethnic groups living in the
Khorezm oasis, including the Eastern Iranian-speaking Khorezms and the Turkic tribes, their formation and
development based on historical sources. Also, the influence of political structures such as the Kushan state, the
Kang state, and the Turkic khanate on these processes was studied. Written sources, archeological findings, and
linguistic data are widely used to illuminate the ethnogenesis processes. This study serves as an important
scientific basis for understanding the multi-layered ethnic composition of the Khorezm oasis.
Keywords:
Khorezm, ethnogenesis, ethnic formation, ethnocultural processes, Eastern Iranian languages, Turkic
peoples, Khorezms, Massaget, Dah, Kerder, Oghuz, Kangli, Pecheneg, Kipchak, Kushan, Kang state, Sugdian
writing, Huns, Turkic khanate, Kabul Shahs, Shun-nu, Proto-Turks, Ossuary, Ethnic composition, Historical
population, Cultural heritage.
Introduction:
The Khorezm region is one of the regions
with a complex ethnic composition formed as a result
of the interaction of different ethnic groups and
cultures. Historical sources and archeological findings
show that people speaking ancient Iranian languages,
Turkic tribes and many other ethnic groups lived in this
area. In particular, such tribes as Massaget, Dah,
Kerder, Oguz, Kangli, Pecheneg and Kipchak played an
important role in the ethnic formation of Khorezm. This
article analyzes the formation of the ethnic
composition of Khorezm and its main factors, as well as
the origin of the main ethnic groups that lived in the
region and their place in the historical and cultural
processes. In this study, scientific conclusions about the
ethnic history of Khorezm are presented based on
historical sources, archaeological evidence, and
ethnographic research.
METHOD
The ethnic formation of the indigenous population of
the Khorezm oasis is a product of complex
ethnocultural processes, which included several stages.
Also, dozens of peoples and clans speaking different
languages took part in the ethnocultural processes that
took place in the oasis. Especially in the period between
the last millennium BC and the first millennium AD, i.e.
in a period of almost two thousand years, the Eastern
Iranian-speaking peoples took the lead in the political
and ethno-cultural processes that took place in the
Khorezm oasis. However, from the early Middle Ages to
the late Middle Ages, the Turkic peoples in the oasis
actively participated in such processes.
Eastern
Iranian-speaking
peoples
are
called
"Khorasmians", "Khorazmians", "Khorazmliks" in
written sources in different languages, and massaget,
dah, kerder who lived in the areas adjacent to the oasis.
As it is assumed that the nomadic peoples such as the
Turks also spoke the Eastern Iranian language, the
Turks who took an active part in the ethnogenesis of
the inhabitants of the oasis also developed until the
Middle Ages "Oguz", Written information about the
division into clans and tribes such as "kojat", "bijanak"
(Pecheneg) has been preserved. In the Classical Middle
and Late Middle Ages, the weight of the Turkic
population increased in the Khorezm oasis, "Kipchak",
"Kangli" and several dozen other clans and tribes
settled, and the native inhabitants of the oasis it will be
known that it is part of it.
As a result of these processes, the Khorezm oasis
gained importance as the center of historical formation
of many ethnic groups. This means that the population
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structure has developed while preserving the unique
characteristics of cultural identity, lifestyle and
economic system. Therefore, the native population of
the oasis is historically diverse and has a rich cultural
heritage.
Picture. Image of ancient Khorezms. Aqchakhan-castle wall paintings (IV-III
centuries BC)
A number of other evidences confirm that there were
Turkic ethnic elements, or rather, proto-Turkic peoples,
in the Khorezm oasis and nearby areas long before and
after the period of the Turkic khanate. In particular, in
the last centuries of the millennium BC - at the
beginning of AD, a certain influence of the people of the
Kang state and the Kushan kingdom was observed,
among them there were also proto-Turkic elements. is
expected. In particular, it is known through Chinese
chronicles that Khorezm was one of the 5 estates in the
Kang State [1]. Copper coins with Sugdian inscriptions
and various seals dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries
AD have been found, confirming the existence of a
unique writing culture within the Kang state. Recently,
an inscription made of clay belonging to the same
century was found in the Kultobe (Aris) monument, and
it says in the Sugdian script, "The Chochliks built a city
and forced the settlers to pay taxes." It was found that
sentences about "connected" were written [2].
The Kangar or Kangui, whose ethnic origin has not yet
been fully determined, lived between the middle basin
of the Syrdarya and Yettisuv, and their next followers
were "Kangar", "son of Kangar", They are known by
ethnonyms such as "Kanga-kishi", "Kangli", and it is
known that they all spoke Turkish [3].
The Kushons, who were mentioned in the Chinese
chronicles as a clan of the Yuechi, who are considered
to have ethnic affinity with the Kangs, founded their
kingdom, and the northern borders reached the
Khorezm oasis. The Kushan kingdom was a state that
united nomadic and settled peoples speaking different
languages, and although the upper basin of the
Amudarya, which is its central region, was inhabited by
more Eastern Iranian-speaking people, it is assumed
that there were proto-Turkic elements
among the ruling clans of the Kushans, whose origin is
connected with the Tokhars [5]. This situation is
confirmed by the fact that several of the Kushan rulers
had Turkic characters in their names, in particular,
Kujula - Kuchli or Kachuvli, Kanishka - Kanik, Tokto -
Tokhta, Geray - Girey, etc. was calculated [6]. It is
interesting that Abu Rayhan Beruni in his work "India"
writes that Barha-tegin, the ruler of the Turkish Kabul
Shah dynasty (640-843), who ruled Kabul and its
surroundings, is a descendant of Kanik (Kanishka) [7].
related to factors. It is also noteworthy that in early
medieval Indian written sources, both the Kushons and
the representatives of the Turkic Khanate were
referred to under the term "turushka", i.e. "Turk" [8].
RESULTS
Y. Y. Nerazik, in the inscriptions found in the Khorezm
ossuaries of the VII-VIII centuries, the term xwnnanyk
means "son of the Hun" and this term is another
important source of slaves who are prisoners of war.
shows that the enslaved people have diverse origins,
some of them are descendants of the Huns [9]. In the
last centuries of the first millennium BC - the first half
of the first millennium AD, the term "Hun" is
considered to mean Turkic-speaking peoples, but this
term found in Khorezm ossuaries is Turkic. it turns out
to represent people. In particular, it is known that in
some of the Mugh mountain Sogdian documents of the
VII-VIII centuries, the word xwn was used in relation to
the representatives of the Turkish khanate, especially
the representatives of the ruling class of the khanate
[10]. It follows from this that in Khorezm, as in the
Sughd oasis, the local population had a tradition of
referring to representatives of the ruling clan of the
Khaganate, in general, the Ashina Turks under the term
"Hun".
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It should be mentioned here that some researchers try
not to associate the Huns or clans and peoples close to
them with the Turks. In the 70s of the 20th century, O.
Munchen-Helfen noted that there was no clear
information about the connection between the Asian
Hun Empire and the European Hun Empire (IV-V
centuries), as well as in Chinese chronicles He
emphasized that the question of whether the Asian
Huns referred to as "syun-nu" (old reading "hun-nu")
called themselves "Hun" is unclear, and a number of
researchers followed him, began to doubt that the
Huns were Turkic. In recent years, the French
researcher, Sugiologist E. de la Vessier has shown that
both kingdoms have the same foundation, which is
mentioned in the Chinese chronicles - in 370 years, a
part of the Shun-nu went to the west. wrote a
confirmation of his migration, asserting that the views
of Menchen-Helfen and his followers had now been
dismissed.
According to this French researcher, the Sogdian "Old
Letters" of the 3rd century AD, found in the Dunhuang
region in the northwest of China, mention the "Huns"
and they are mentioned in the annals. There was one
nation with the "syun-nu" [11]. This opinion of the
researcher is supported by a number of written sources
in different languages of the "Xun-nu" who traveled
from the north-west of China to the south - towards the
upper reaches of the Amudarya in the 370s, including
In Pahlavi and Bactrian written monuments of Iranian
language, "khyun", "xion", "hun", "un", "al-hun", in
ancient Indian inscriptions "huna", "sveta-huna",
"hara-huna", in Greek, Armenian, Syriac sources "hun",
It is also confirmed by its occurrence in the forms
"khon" and "un". It can be seen that the ancient
Khorezm people also mentioned the Turkic peoples in
the early Middle Ages, in particular their leading
categories, in particular the Ashina Turks, under the
ethnonym "Hun".
The name of one of the representatives of
Khorezmshah-Afrighi dynasty is mentioned as Kanik in
Abu Rayhan Beruni's work "Asor ul-Baqiyya", and this
name is the same as Kanik, who is mentioned as the
founder of the Turkic dynasty in Kabul in another work
of Allama. Interestingly, Kanik, who is shown as the first
king of the Turkic Barhatekin dynasty [13] in Kabul,
appears as Kanishka in epigraphic works and coins with
Bactrian writing [14]. In short, based on such
information, the similarity of the name of a famous
ruler during the Kushan period with the name of one of
the later governors of Khorezm indicates that there
were ethno-cultural contacts between the inhabitants
of both regions.
DISCUSSION
Shortly before the Turkic khanate, the Ephtalian state
(450-565) existed in the central and southern regions of
Central Asia, and it is assumed that this state had its
political influence in the Khorezm oasis. It has been
suggested by some researchers that there was some
kind of ethnic affinity between the ruling dynasty of the
Ephthalites and the ruling dynasty of Khorezm, the
Africans. In particular, in the first half of the 20th
century, I. Marquardt and Z.V. Togon identified
themselves with the ancient Iranian dynasty, and the
origin of the Khorezmshah dynasty, which ruled in pre-
Islamic times, is actually the Abdals. They wrote that he
was from (Ephthalites) [15].
Relying on the fact that the governors of the Hosyun
(Khorazm) region are from the Zhaowu dynasty [16],
some scholars differ somewhat about their ethnicity.
they promote views. Although Abu Rayhan Beruni cited
a list of 22 rulers of Khorezm and emphasized that their
lineage was connected to Siyavush, the son of
Kaykhusrav, one of the kings of Iran [17], some
researchers there are also opinions that all the rulers in
the list did not belong to the same dynasty. The names
of two Khorezm rulers in the list cited by Beruni are
given in the form of Aska Jamuk, which suggests that
the origin of the Khorezm rulers should be related to
Central Asians, not Iran. This term can be equated with
"Jamuk", the dynastic name of the rulers of Samarkand
and its surroundings in Chinese chronicles [18]. There
are views that the local form of this term, which the
Chinese brought as "Zhaowu", was "Jamuk".
Zhjaovu or Jamuks migrated from Yettisuv and its
surroundings to the areas between Amudarya and
Syrdarya in the IV-V centuries and formed their own
administrative system in a number of Sughd
principalities centered on Choch, Fergana and
Samarkand. Thus, it can be concluded that the name of
the ruling house Zhaovu, to which the rulers of
Khorezm belonged, is presented in Arabic sources in a
form close to its original form, Jamuk style. Connecting
these rulers with the rulers of Samarkand, and, in turn,
makes it possible to equate them to a certain extent
with the Yettisuv and Eastern Turkestan regions of
Central Asia [19].
These data are important as an important source in the
study of ethnic and political processes in the history of
Khorezm, and they are important in illuminating the
processes of the emergence and spread of the ruling
elites in the region.
Even after the Turkish khanate, the proportion of Turkic
people in Khorezm increased. Mahmud Kashghari
wrote in his work "Devonu Lugatit Turk" (11th century)
that Khorezm Turks are from the "Kojat" clan [20], this
ethnonym is also found in other sources. The question
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of where this clan originally lived, that is, whether it
lived in the Khorezm oasis from ancient times, or
whether it migrated later from some region of Central
Asia, has not yet been determined. Based on the fact
that they were first mentioned in the written sources
of the developed Middle Ages, it can be assumed that
they lived in the oasis for many centuries, probably in
the early Middle Ages. According to the researcher A.
Matniyazov, it is necessary to equate the "Kochat" or
"Kojat" Turks with the "Kushites", who were known as
a major political power in Ancient Asia in ancient times,
and who moved them from Khorezm. can be
considered an ancient Turkic people [21]. According to
him, the Kushites, as S.P.Tolstov has repeatedly
emphasized, the state of Khorezm and Mitanni, as well
as Khorezm's interaction with the Hittite, Hurrian and
Kassite peoples of Ancient Asia, moreover, it is possible
that they went to Mesopotamia as a result of migration
processes. A.Matniyazov emphatically writes: "If our
hypothesis is correct, this millennium BC. It confirms
that representatives of the Altai language, a Turkic-
speaking ethnic group, lived in Khorezm at the
beginning of the 1st millennium. As Q. Sadikov noted,
"historical-cultural processes and the social situation in
some mixed regions in the following periods brought
forth the Turkic-Tokharian, Turkic-Sughd and Turkic-
Khorazmian forms of bilingualism [22]. In some cases,
this has led to a sudden change in the state of the
language and ethnic relations in some regions. For
example, complete Turkicization of the language of the
population living in the Khorezm oasis, etc. [23].
However, the probability of this view is not very high,
because it is difficult to come to such a conclusion
based only on some similarities between ethnic terms
and some aspects. Thus, the issues related to the
"Kojat" Turks and the ethnic processes related to them
require deep scientific research in the future.
As mentioned above, the linguistic information related
to the language of the "ancient Khorezmites", who are
one of the East Iranian-speaking peoples and are
considered one of the first indigenous inhabitants of
the oasis, is expressed, albeit partially, in written
sources in ancient Persian, Greek, Arabic and other
languages, as well as in epigraphic findings from the
remains of the ancient city of the oasis. It is important
that the ancient Khorezm language was one of the
peoples with a script specific to the Central Asian
region, which was based on the Aramaic alphabet. The
entry of this writing into the Khorezm oasis is
connected with a number of political and ethno-
cultural processes. After the Persians conquered
Babylon in the 6th century BC, they adopted a number
of cultural elements characteristic of Central Asians. At
the same time - between 545-539 BC, Khorezm passed
into the hands of the Achaemenids, and in the
Behustun stone inscriptions written in 517, Khorezm is
listed among the countries paying tribute to the Iranian
king Darius.
According to the researchers, the ancient Khorezms
with Aramaic script were written in 1000 BC. They may
have met in the 5th century, probably even earlier. In
the Aramaic documents of those times, it is mentioned
that a soldier named Dargman from Khorezm served in
the Persian army. BC In the 4th century, the Khorezm
oasis was a principality with its own administration, and
it is not clear whether the Achaemenid kingdom
remained in the oasis during this period. In written
sources BC. In 328, it is mentioned that Farasman, the
king of Khorezm, made a treaty with Alexander of
Macedonia. Based on this information, A. Matniyazov
believes that Khorezm writing based on Aramaic was
formed in those years. Before that, the Aramaic script
used in the Achaemenid kingdom was in circulation,
After the establishment of the independent state of
Khorezm in the second half of the IV century, business
and correspondence began to be conducted in the
Khorezm script based on the Aramaic alphabet[24].
According to A. Yazberdiyev, who conducted research
on the Khorezm language and writing, the official
Aramaic language and the Devankhana script were
introduced to the ancient Khorezm people in 1000 BC.
Although it was already known in the 5th century, a
century later, with the establishment of the
independent state of Khorezm, the Aramaic language
ceased to be used in local government offices, and its it
is replaced by the Khorezm language, which adapted
the Aramaic alphabet to its own language. In this
regard, the ancient Khorezm script is more than 1500
years old - BC. IV - mile. It is used as an official writing
between the 11th century [25].
In addition, a number of other views on the appearance
of the Khorezm script have been put forward.
M.Mahmudov and M.Abdullayev emphasize that the
period of formation of this writing went through the
following stages:
1) BC VIII - IV centuries (the period of the emergence of
the Khorezm state and its dependence on the Assyrian,
Median, and Achaemenid states);
2) BC IV - mile. III centuries (restoration of the
independence of Khorezm and its inclusion in the Kang
and Kushan kingdoms);
3) 3rd - 8th centuries (Khorazmshah's reign of the
Africans);
4) VIII-XI centuries (the period of subjugation of
Khorezm to the Arab caliphate and restoration of
independence) [26].
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In the early Middle Ages, especially the period of the
Turkish Khaganate, the third phase of this period
coincided with the language and writing of the ancient
Khorezm people in the Khorezm oasis, as in the
previous stages. will be preserved. Despite the fact that
this language is one of the eastern Iranian languages,
like the Sugdian language, it was not understood by the
people of the surrounding areas. Although the Sugdian,
Pahlavi, and Old Khorezm scripts are from the same
base, and most of the letters in both scripts have a close
resemblance to each other, these scripts were created
when comparing the inscriptions, it is understood that
they are very different from each other [27]. In
particular, the comparison of Sugdian and Khorezm
texts shows that they are closer than others, but the
texts of both languages are far from each other.
observed. If it is noticeable that the letters were written
without connecting each other in the Khorezm script of
the early middle ages and the features of the ancient
Aramaic script were preserved, by this time the letters
in the Sugdian script it becomes clear that they are
connected to each other and have a complex
appearance.
In the advanced Middle Ages, especially in the Khorezm
oasis and many other regions of Central Asia, most Arab
and Persian geographers paid special attention to the
ethnic characteristics of the oasis population, especially
the local population. In their works, these geographers
tried to provide information not only about Khorezm's
natural resources and economic situation, but also
about its various ethnic groups, their lifestyle, cultural
and social structures. Such an approach increases the
historical-geographical importance of Khorezm and
becomes important in illuminating its interactions and
integration with other regions of that period. It should
be mentioned here that although the information
provided by them mostly refers to the 9th-12th
centuries, some of the information refers to the
realities of the early Middle Ages, in particular, during
the rule of the Turkish khanate. is observed to be
related to According to them, Khorezm people are the
most widespread among the "people of Khurasan", i.e.,
the population of the western and southwestern parts
of Central Asia and have a different language, customs
and character. were people, that is, "Among the people
of Khurasan, they are the most scattered [to different
lands] and travel [the most]. There is not a single big
city in Khorasan without a large community of Khorezm
people. The language of its inhabitants is unique. There
is no [other] language in Khurasan similar to theirs.
Their clothes are [short] jackets and hooded hats, and
their tailoring has a unique tradition and style. Their
behavior is not like the people of Khurasan [in other
lands]. They have [qualities] of fortitude and courage to
resist the Ghuz (Oghuz Turks). There are no [mines] of
gold, silver, or [any other] underground [subterranean]
wealth in their country. All their wealth is due to trade
with the Turks and raising livestock [28].
It can be seen that the language of the indigenous
people of the Khorezm oasis, despite being one of the
eastern Iranian languages, was quite different from the
Iranian languages of Khurasan and its neighboring
regions. Also, this language is completely different from
the Turkish language, and since they belong to a
separate language group, Arab and Persian
geographers emphasized that they are different.
Although representatives of the Oghuz tribe of Turks
made up the majority of the nomadic peoples of the
Khorezm oasis and its surroundings, their influence on
the Khorezm people was much later. happened. This
process, as a result of historical and cultural changes,
led to the formation of the ethnic composition of
Khorezm at different stages.
The influence of Iranian peoples from the south -
Khorasan was strong in the ethnic formation of the
Khorezm oasis population, while the participation of
Turks and even Slavs from the north and northeast was
noticeable. According to Arab geographers, to
Khorezm: "most of the slaves are [brought] from the
Khabar (Slavic), Khazar and neighboring lands, as well
as [they have] Turkish slaves, al-fanak, suvsar, foxes,
ad-dalak [furs] and the furs of other animals, all these
are brought to them and remain there.'
The northern regions of Khorezm are relatively close to
the Volga-Ural River, and during the period of the
Turkic Khaganate, as well as much earlier and later,
there was a majority of nomadic Turkic population in
these areas. Slavic tribes lived far north and northwest
of them, and they were brought to Khorezm by the
Turks as slaves. The Khazar tribes, who live in close
proximity to the Slavs, are a population that speaks a
very different dialect of Turkic, and they live in the
lower Volga, North Caucasus, north of the Black Sea,
and South Russia. have been politically dominant.
The works of Arab-Persian geographers contain a
number of legendary information, some of which are
mentioned as the inhabitants who established contact
with the Khorezm oasis: "They have rabbits and furs.
there are merchants who go to the lands of Gog and
Magog to bring. Very few bearded people dare to go to
their [country], [because] most of them [face] hair and
mustache are [very] sparse. The older men of Gog and
Magog [tribe] are beardless and hairless. When a bald
man comes to their [land], the king of Gog and Magog
orders his beard to be pulled out. Then he does favors
to the shaved merchant and gives him gifts. These were
the provinces [located] around the Jayhun [river]”[29].
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Although legends and narratives are mixed in this
information, some details of the information help to
shed some light on the ethnic characteristics of the
people of the region at that time. Most of the medieval
authors understood the people of Gog and Magog as
the people who live in distant lands, far away from the
Turks and Chinese, and described their appearance as
Mongolian. those who describe In the above
information, "beardless or sparsely bearded people"
and "bald people", that is, people from the eastern
countries and Khorezm people (or their neighboring
peoples) can give some idea about the ethnic
differences between them.
CONCLUSION
So, the ethnocultural processes that took place during
the Khaganate period in the Khorezm oasis, which was
one of the dozens of oases in Central Asia, during the
rule of the Turkish Khaganate, before and after the
Khaganate It was a certain continuation of the close
relations between the settled and nomadic population
of the region, which has been somewhat integrated
with the political and ethnic processes of the period. In
the millennia BC, there was a process of interaction
between
the
settled
population
known
as
"Khorasmians" or "Khorasmians" along with nomadic
peoples such as Massaget and Dah in the oasis. if given,
the processes of settlement of nomadic peoples such
as "Kang" and "Khun" (Eftali, Kidari) in the oasis
increased a little before the Khaganate period.
During the period of the Turkic khanate, the Ashina clan
and related Turkic clans, particularly the Oguz tribes,
entered the interior of Central Asia in the region. A little
later, in the middle and lower reaches of the Syr Darya,
during the rule of the Oguz Yabgu (VIII-IX centuries),
Arolboyi, the Lower Amudarya basin, in general, the
desert and the Khorezm oasis the migration of dozens
of Oguz clans to the parts adjacent to the steppes is
observed.
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