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ABSTRACT
The current paper provides a contemporary perspective on Latin's role as the language of medicine, specifically
focusing on its terminological aspect. It delves into the essential terminological vocabularies indispensable for medical
practitioners, with particular emphasis on three fundamental categories. Foremost among these is anatomical
terminology, which continues to predominantly utilize Latin on an international scale. Clinical disciplines present a
more diverse scenario, where alongside Latin terms, expressions from ancient origins, often in ethnic languages, are
extensively employed. Additionally, driven partly by the demands of digitization, there have been repeated efforts to
promote English as a potential successor in the realm of clinical medicine, owing to its widespread adoption. In
pharmaceutical terminology, Latin persists as a vital means of global communication, upheld by the European
Pharmacopoeia (2014) and the International Non-proprietary Names corpus (2013, 2017). Nonetheless, future
considerations should acknowledge the growing competition from national languages in this domain.
KEYWORDS
Latin; language of medicine; anatomical nomenclature; clinical terminology; pharmaceutical Latin.
INTRODUCTION
Latin has long held a prominent role in various scientific
fields, particularly in medicine. Throughout the Middle
Ages, medical texts written in Latin were the norm,
with exceptions being rare. However, starting from the
16th century, the dominance of Latin began to diminish
as modern languages gained traction. This shift was
Research Article
LATIN'S ROLE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS IN MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
Submission Date:
January 21, 2024, A
CCEPTED
Date:
January 26, 2024,
Published Date:
January 31, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajsshr/Volume04Issue01-23
Olimboyeva Dono Abduvaliyevna
Assistant of the Alfraganus University, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ajsshr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
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particularly noticeable in France, where there was even
a court case against a doctor named Rivière, who was
challenged for his inadequate command of Latin,
signaling the beginning of Latin's retreat from
medicine in that region. Italy and later England
followed suit. Conversely, in Germany and central
Europe, Latin persisted in medical education until the
19th century.
Medical
professionals
themselves
expressed
discontent with this reliance on Latin. Renowned
figures such as the German doctor L. Schönlein voiced
concerns about the hindrance posed by Latin in clinical
instruction. They argued that the rapid development of
new terms in the natural sciences, which heavily
influenced medicine, made the search for Latin
equivalents a futile endeavor. This dilemma led to
decisions like Schönlein delivering his inaugural lecture
for the Berlin Clinic in German in 1840.
Similarly, Viennese clinician J. Škoda found Latin to be
burdensome. Despite his intentions to deliver his
inaugural lecture in German, he was compelled to
translate it into Latin at the last moment in 1846.
However, he concluded his lecture by condemning the
use of Latin and pledging to free medicine from its
burden.
By the 19th century, the demand to liberate medicine
from the shackles of Latin gained momentum.
Disciplines in medical faculties, such as those in Prague,
ceased being taught in Latin by 1848. Yet, despite its
discontinuation as a language of instruction and
scientific discourse, Latin persisted in its role as the
source of medical terminology, maintaining its
indispensable position in the language of medicine.
Despite the evident decline of Latin within medical
terminology during the 20th century, professional
communication
in
national
languages
has
predominantly utilized international Latin-Greek terms.
This practice stems from well-known advantages:
maintaining
terminological
consistency
across
geographical boundaries and historical periods, as
these terms have remained relatively unchanged for
over two millennia. Additionally, Latin and Greek
provide a rich source of vocabulary that can be
employed when creating new terms.
The inherent incomprehensibility of Latin and Greek
to patients has been regarded as advantageous in
certain contexts, as understanding the physician's
utterances is not always necessary or beneficial for the
patient. This phenomenon, termed the "mystery of
foreign-language medical communication," suggests
that the use of incomprehensible terminology may
enhance
the
perception
of
the
physician's
competence.
Historical figures like Pliny the Elder and Montaigne
have observed that people often trust what they do
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not fully understand, further supporting the use of
foreign-language medical communication.
However, the diminishing knowledge of Latin among
newer generations of doctors poses a threat to this
traditional mode of communication. Some educators
have expressed concerns that medical students may
no longer comprehend Latin, which could lead to
misunderstandings in clinical settings. Furthermore,
the emergence of English as a dominant language in
modern medicine presents a challenge to the special
terminological function of Latin. Opinions vary on the
role and future prospects of English in medical
terminology, with some suggesting that English has
replaced Latin, while others argue that Latin and Greek
have endured historical challenges and will continue to
do so. Given the prevalence of Latin and Latinate terms
in English medical terminology, it is reasonable to
consider English as an extension of this tradition rather
than a complete departure from it.
A cursory examination of English anatomical
nomenclature reveals the presence of Latin not only in
the nominative plural of certain nouns (e.g., fascia
–
fasciae, sulcus
–
sulci), but also in the nominative
plurals of some adjectives (e.g., chordae tendineae,
foramina nervosa, rami communicantes). Additionally,
one can observe nouns in both genitive singular and
genitive plural forms (e.g., orbicularis oculi/oris, crista
galli, levator anguli oris, vasa vasorum, quadratus
lumborum), graded forms of Latin adjectives (e.g.,
scalenus minimus, latissimus dorsi, levator palpebrae
superioris, longissimus capitis), and even multi-word
terms of purely Latin origin (e.g., flexor digiti minimi
brevis, levator labii alaeque nasi). When Latin forms are
incorporated, there is no consistent pattern observed
in English nomenclature. Numerous instances exist
where either the English version of the term or its Latin
counterpart is used interchangeably (e.g., arteria
thyroidea ima
–
deepest layer of subcutaneous tissue,
foramen magnum
–
mental foramen, major/minor
salivary glands
–
greater/lesser vestibular glands).
A similar scenario is encountered in clinical
terminology. Some terms of Graeco-Latin origin are
presented in English variation, primarily with
Anglicized suffixes (e.g., peptic ulcer, thromboembolic
pulmonary
hypertension,
acute
viral
gastroenteropathy, congenital omental cyst), while
others are retained in their original Latin forms, albeit
with
English
pronunciation
(e.g.,
salpingitis,
nephrolithiasis, colitis cystica profunda/superficialis,
pseudomyxoma
peritonei,
tinea
unguium/manuum/pedum/capitis). Hence, there is a
debate on whether one can effectively grasp English
medical
terminology
without
a
fundamental
understanding of Latin.
Anatomical nomenclature
The forthcoming section of our paper will provide a
concise overview of the three principal terminological
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corpora and the current role of Latin within them.
Foremost, attention will be directed towards
anatomical terminology, where Latin holds the most
entrenched
position.
Throughout
history,
all
anatomical nomenclatures have been rooted in Latin.
The formal recognition and endorsement of Latin
anatomical nomenclature occurred at a congress of
the Anatomische Gesellschaft in Basle in 1895, primarily
driven by pressing needs of the time. The existing
nominative system had become overly complex and
saturated, impeding effective communication and
threatening both scientific inquiry and medical
education. The Basiliensia nomina anatomica (BNA,
1895) emerged from this context and remained in use
within anatomical institutions and professional
publications until 1935, when German specialists in
Jena introduced a new project with significant factual
and linguistic deviations from its predecessor. The
emergence of the I(J)enaiensia nomina anatomica
(I(J)NA, 1935) during the fascist era may have presaged
its unfavorable destiny. However, it also adhered to
stringent
linguistic
standards,
with
classicists
contributing to the preparatory work through
consultations. Following World War II, American and
Canadian anatomists proposed rejecting this corpus in
favor of reverting to the Basle names, which
underwent
a
conservative,
minimally
revised
approach. Subsequent efforts, coordinated by the
newly
established
International
Anatomical
Nomenclature Committee (IANC) since 1950, led to a
third standardization known as the Parisiensia nomina
anatomica, named after the authorizing congress
(PNA, 1955). From then on, the Parisian nomenclature,
later abbreviated as Nomina anatomica (NA) from 1965
onwards, underwent six revised editions overseen by
the aforementioned committee. Its primary goal was
to address current demands, notably by introducing
new terms for emerging concepts and rectifying
factual and linguistic deficiencies. However, due to
significant objections regarding organization and
persistent
technical
disputes
between
the
International Federation of Anatomical Associations
(IFAA) and the nomenclature committee, culminating
in the publication of the sixth edition in 1989 with
minimal consideration for IFAA member feedback, a
new committee was established under the auspices of
the Federation, known as the Federative Committee on
Anatomical Terminology (FCAT). This committee was
tasked with developing "the official terminology of the
anatomical sciences," based on consultations with all
anatomical societies and emphasizing democratic
principles in collaboration. The primary objectives
involved
naming
new
anatomical
structures,
introducing alternative terms, including those
previously utilized solely by clinicians, and ensuring
future versions meet the needs of all users across
theoretical and clinical disciplines.
Overall, this approach can be interpreted as a shift
towards a regulated yet significantly more liberal
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treatment of terms, contradicting previous efforts
aimed at deliberately eliminating synonymous
expressions. After unsuccessful attempts to establish
contact with IANC, the new team selected the 5th
edition of NA, published in 1983, as their starting point.
Initially, they prepared a working version, which
underwent extensive international evaluation, with
numerous suggestions incorporated into the final
version. Subsequently, in 1998, a new corpus of
anatomical terms, known as Terminologia Anatomica,
was published. It's noteworthy that FCAT explicitly
affirmed Latin as the language of "definitive
terminology," a decision previously made only once at
the 8th International Congress of Anatomists in
Wiesbaden
(1965).
In
presenting
the
new
nomenclature to experts, I. Whitmore, chairman of
FCAT, felt it necessary to justify this decision to
potential skeptics. He highlighted Latin's attributes as
a dead language, devoid of development and not tied
exclusively to any country or nation. According to
Whitmore, its use in terminology can be characterized
as global and "non-secular," intended for worldwide
professional application. Among the advantages of
classical languages emphasized were constancy,
international character, and neutrality compared to
national languages. The professional utility of the new
nomenclature corpus was positively evaluated by J.
Drukker. In conclusion, it's worth noting that all
editions of Nomina anatomica, including the latest, lack
the participation of Latinists in their revision, thus
potentially diminishing the linguistic quality of the text.
Terminology of clinical medicine
The terminology of clinical disciplines presents a
significantly more intricate and less uniform landscape.
This complexity is understandable for several reasons.
Firstly, the scope of clinical terminology is much
broader, estimated to encompass up to 60 thousand
terms. Secondly, there exists a distinction between
descriptive disciplines like anatomy and histology, and
clinical medicine, which undergoes more substantial
changes. Some diseases have unknown causes, and
new
diseases
emerge,
leading
to
ongoing
development and evolution of their names, therapies,
and understanding.
Clinical terms, along with those related to pathological
anatomy, are encountered in various contexts such as
medical literature, physicians' daily practice in case
documentation, diagnoses related to pathological
anatomy, and normative medical terminology
handbooks. In medical literature, traditional terms of
Graeco-Latin origin predominantly prevail, although
there is a growing presence of new expressions,
particularly borrowed from English. For instance, in
Czech, terms like stres, by-pass, and katgut/ketgat
have emerged, alongside traditional terms such as
gastritida/gastritída,
hysterektomie/hysterektómia,
hematom/hematóm, encefalopatie/encefalopatia, and
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premedikace/premedikácia, often adapting to national
language forms. However, this is not an absolute rule,
as there are publications that consistently utilize Latin,
sometimes in forms that may surprise contemporary
readers. For instance, the Slovakian Vademecum
medici includes constructions such as "hyperkinesis
involuntaris de origine extrapyramidali," "morbus ex
irradiatione," "paralysis nervi facialis peripherica," and
even "AIDS" in
its Latin
form "syndroma
immunodeficientiae acquisitae." Similarly, the Czech
text does not shy away from Latin, although
domesticated terms are more prevalent. For example,
terms like "pseudoappendicitis," "acanthosis nigricans
maligna," "erythema exsudativum multiforme,"
"lichen ruber planus," and "mastopathia chronica
cystica" can be found.
When documenting case records, doctors in our
central European region still often prioritize Latin
terms, even though they may resort to abbreviations
or restructure sentences to avoid oblique cases. For
example, instead of "status post bronchitidem," they
may
write
"bronchitis,
status
post."
While
abbreviations can expedite work, they also contribute
to the erosion of complete and accurate language
usage over time, leading to decreased active command
among some doctors.
From a linguistic perspective, the most challenging
task lies in diagnoses related to pathological anatomy,
where forming lengthy phrases with multiple words in
various grammatical cases is often necessary. It's not
uncommon for Latin to be replaced with terms of
Graeco-Latin origin in the national language form.
These texts, like their predecessors, are replete with
abbreviations. In terms of lexical resources, medicine
has long relied on the statistical classification of
diseases issued by the World Health Organization
(WHO), updated every ten years. However, this serves
primarily statistical purposes rather than providing
comprehensive terminological guidance. The chaotic
state of clinical terminology has prompted several
standardization efforts, particularly in response to the
evolving demands of computerization. Notable
projects
include
SNOMED
(Systematized
Nomenclature of Medicine) and GALEN. The American
edition of SNOMED was first issued in 1979.
The approach taken is not based on a single initial
language, such as Latin. Instead, individual languages
are expected to develop their own versions. For
instance, the German version emerged in 1984.
Interestingly, the SNOMED authors seem unconcerned
about Latin; the introduction makes no mention of its
role in medicine, despite the frequent use of traditional
Graeco-Latin terms throughout the text, alongside
prevalent Anglo-Americanisms.
The GALEN project, which ran from 1992 to 1995, aimed
to create "a semantically valid model of clinical
terminology, represented in a formal language, and
associated with sophisticated support for different
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natural languages and conversion between different
coding schemes." Subsequently, the GALEN-IN-USE
project, conducted from 1995 to 1999 in collaboration
with the European Federation of Classification Centres,
followed suit.
Additionally, both the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the Council for International Organizations
of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) initiated efforts to
develop an internationally unified and recognized
terminology for global use. From 1979 to 1992, seven
volumes of the International Nomenclature of Diseases
(IND) were published. These volumes provided
recommended names with definitions and rejected
synonymous expressions for various diseases and
disorders.
The terminology presented in these volumes is
crafted in a unique form of English, often reminiscent
of Paracelsian combinations of German and Latin. This
linguistic construct, sometimes referred to as "lingua
anglatina" or "Englatin," includes terms like
"oesophageal web due to dyskeratosis congenita
syndrome," "adenocarcinoma of the appendix,"
"acute/chronic cor pulmonale," "agenesis of the
ductus deferens," "congenital stenosis of the urinary
meatus," and "leiomyoma of the cervix uteri."
The necessity of adopting this nomenclature is
questionable, as many medical professionals seem
unaware of it. According to information from the
CIOMS secretariat, work on this extensive project has
been halted due to economic reasons. However, there
is a recent example from the Czech Republic: the
development of a computer program named
PFANNENSTIEL in 1998 for the Faculty Hospital in Brno,
which opted for the use of Latin names for diseases,
injuries, and medical procedures. Drawing from this
evidence, one can readily observe that Latin offers a
wealth of expression perfectly suited for conveying
scientific and factual information in contemporary
medical terminology. Consider the following examples:
endoresectio
endometrii
per
hysteroscopiam,
microabrasio cavi uteri, partus non progrediens,
pseudohermaphroditismus
masculinus/femininus,
fixatio
gypsea
membri
inferioris
completa,
myringoplastica per prothesim, resectio vesicae
urinariae cum reimplantatione ureteris, nephrectomia
bilateralis donoris mortui, asphyxia livida intra partum.
Pharmaceutical Latin
In a third domain, Latin has traditionally persisted:
pharmaceutical and pharmacological terminology. In
some countries, the practice of utilizing prescription-
related Latin endures, maintaining fidelity to its original
linguistic conventions. To adeptly navigate this crucial
aspect of their profession, a physician must grasp not
only the specific lexicon but also the grammatical
structure of prescription-related text, especially the
interplay between the invocation (Invocatio) and the
structural components of the prescription itself
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(Praescriptio). The names of individual remedies take
the form of a genitive with an attributive partitive
function, while expressions indicating dose data
(typically in grams) are placed in the objective
accusative, complementing the imperative form
"recipe". The terminology pertaining to subscription
and/or signature, detailing the preparation, form, and
method of dispensing the drug, as well as other
instructions for the pharmacist, remains enduringly
consistent; for instance: Misce fiat solutio modo
aseptico, Da cum formula, Adde guttatorium sterile in
capsula, Divide in doses aequales No V (quinque),
Sterilisetur, Ne repetatur, Ad usum medici, Sub signo
veneni, and similar phrases. Conversely, the official
names of drugs, adjuvant substances, medical
preparations, and healthcare products
—
normatively
outlined
in
pharmacopoeias
—
have
undergone
significant changes in recent years. In the Czech
Republic, the Czech Pharmacopoeia of 1997 and its
1999 Addendum remain in force. These documents
were compiled with a view to harmonizing their
contents with the European Pharmacopoeia, an
internationally
recognized
standard.
This
harmonization has facilitated a transition from
traditional Latin names, prevalent in Central European
pharmacopoeias, to an international nomenclature.
While still Latin-based, this new nomenclature differs
substantially from its predecessor in formal
grammatical and lexical aspects. It is anchored in
international
non-proprietary
names
(INN),
augmented by English, French, Russian, Spanish, or
German versions.
In the realm of names indicating binary compounds,
salts, or esters, a notable transformation has occurred
in their formulation. Traditionally crafted as nominal
phrases featuring attributive adjectives, these names
have undergone a shift whereby the adjectives are
transformed into nouns. The substantive element,
originally dominant, now assumes the role of an
appositional adjunct with explicative significance. For
instance, "calcium oxydatum" becomes "calcii
oxidum," "ammonium chloratum" becomes "ammonii
chloridum," "natrium salicylicum" becomes "natrii
salicylas," "kalium nitricum" becomes "kalii nitras," and
"natrium nitrosum" becomes "natrii nitris."
This transformation has also extended to the word
order of pharmacopoeial names for plant-based drugs,
which were traditionally realized through noun
phrases with appositional genitival adjuncts. For
example, "Uvae ursi folium" becomes "Uvae ursi
folium," "Valerianae radix" becomes "Valerianae
radix," "Anisi stellati fructus" becomes "Anisi stellati
fructus," and so forth. Similarly, formally identical
names of other drugs and preparations have been
modified, such as "Sesami oleum," "Belladonnae folii
extractum siccum normatum," "Citri etheroleum,"
"Glyceroli suppositorium," and "Iodi solutio aquosa."
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This shift marks the first instance of anteposition of
an appositional substantival adjunct instead of the
current postposition. However, the adjustment in
word order is not consistently applied, and the original
ordering is often retained. For example, "Spiritus
saponis kalini" retains the original order, while
"Camphorae spiritus" does not. Similarly, "Lana
cellulosi regenerati" maintains the original order, but
"Cellulosi pulvis" does not. These modifications reflect
a transitional phase and pose significant challenges in
their adoption into professional and educational
practice. Despite some European Union countries
favoring
national
languages
in
prescription
dispensation, Latin remains preferred in the central
European area. Moreover, the standard international
nomenclature of drugs and auxiliary substances
predominantly relies on the Latin version. Notably, the
Latin version of the pharmacopoeia is utilized in
Germany, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, the former Soviet
Union countries, and even in Japan and China.
Phraseological collocations in medical Latin
Phraseological expressions containing medical content
constitute a distinct category. While their quantity may
not be significant, their practical utility is considerable
and an integral part of technical language. Formally,
they typically consist of noun phrases, with at least one
element constrained in meaning and function to its
specific collocation. These expressions remain a vital
component of modern medical communication, valued
for their ability to convey complex concepts
economically and succinctly, akin to terms. In national
languages, they often correspond to multiple
periphrastic expressions.
Examples include:
"Facies Hippocratica" (Hippocratic face): Describing
the critical state of a disease or the expression of a
patient's face before death.
"Signum mali ominis" (Sign of ill omen): Referring to an
unfavorable sign regarding prognosis.
"Vitium artis" (Defect in medical art): Designating a
defect subject to a doctor's criminal or civil liability.
"Excisio probatoria" (Tentative excision): Referring to
the removal of a morbid focus for histological
examination.
"Circulus vitiosus" (Vicious circle): Describing the
simultaneous occurrence of morbid processes that
adversely affect each other.
"Experimentum crucis" (Crucial experiment): Denoting
a decisive test intended to confirm which of several
hypotheses is correct.
"(Prognosis) quoad vitam" (Forecast regarding life):
Concerning the preservation of life or the quality
thereof.
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"Intervalla lucida" (Lucid intervals): Referring to clear
moments or brief returns to consciousness.
CONCLUSION
As evidenced by the preceding discussion, Latin has
entrenched itself deeply within medical terminology
and, consequently, within the field of medicine itself.
Its enduring productivity over time has rendered its
presence in medical discourse as entirely natural, albeit
with certain geographical variations across different
regions.
While
earlier
publications
explicitly
acknowledged this fact (see [27]), more recent ones
often implicitly presuppose it while avoiding explicit
mention (see, for example, [28] and [29]).
Nevertheless, it is undeniable that over the span of
more than two millennia, Latin has established an
exceptionally influential and resilient tradition within
medicine, surpassing any potential competitor. Hence,
doubts regarding the continued relevance of Latin in
medicine can be considered unfounded. In this
context, it is fitting to recall a contemporary Neo-Latin
maxim: "Invia est in medicina via sine lingua Latina"
(The path in medicine is impassable without the Latin
language), succinctly encapsulating the essence of the
situation described in this article.
This underscores the necessity and legitimacy of
teaching Latin terminology within medical faculties
(see [30]), aimed primarily at equipping students and
future clinicians with the necessary skills for precise
and linguistically correct usage of medical terminology.
It could be argued that Latin's "continuation" within
English medical terminology serves as a fortuitous
solution, maintaining its unique status within the field
while simultaneously accelerating and facilitating the
dissemination of English medical terminology.
To offer a broader perspective, it is worth recalling
the aphoristic insight of the German historian
Schipperges [5], who contextualized the issue of Latin
versus English in medicine through the lens of an
enlightened expert: "The old doctor spoke Latin, the
new doctor speaks English, the good doctor speaks to
the patient."
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