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Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
ABSTRACT
The Ferghana Valley has long been recognized for its rich history and abundant natural resources, particularly its
significant role in the development of the oil industry. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive historical account
of the oil industry in the Ferghana Valley during the period of the Kokand Khanate and the subsequent colonial era.
The study begins by delving into the early developments of oil extraction and production in the region, highlighting
the traditional methods employed by local communities and the cultural significance of oil within the society. It then
examines the impact of the Kokand Khanate on the oil industry, exploring the influence of the Khanate's
administration and policies on the production and trade of oil.
Furthermore, the paper investigates the transformative effects of the colonial era, during which the Ferghana Valley
fell under the influence of various external powers. It analyzes the introduction of modern technologies,
infrastructural developments, and the establishment of colonial oil companies, shedding light on their role in shaping
the industry and its relationship with the local populace.
Moreover, the study evaluates the socio-economic implications of the colonial period on the oil industry, including
changes in labor practices, trade dynamics, and the integration of the Ferghana Valley into global oil markets. It also
addresses the environmental impact of increased oil extraction and the responses of local communities to these
changes.
Research Article
THE EVOLUTION OF THE OIL INDUSTRY IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY
FROM THE KOKAND KHANATE TO THE COLONIAL ERA
Submission Date:
December 12, 2023,
Accepted Date:
December 17, 2023,
Published Date:
December 22, 2023
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajsshr/Volume03Issue12-42
Khusnida Ergasheva
Doctoral Student At The Department Of History Of Uzbekistan National University Of Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ajsshr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
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(ISSN
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SJIF
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(2021:
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6.
015
)
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)
OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
By examining primary sources, historical records, and scholarly works, this paper seeks to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the evolution of the oil industry in the Ferghana Valley. It aims to contribute to the broader discourse
on the historical development of oil industries in regions with similar historical and geographical contexts, offering
insights into the complex interplay between local traditions, imperial ambitions, and global economic forces.
KEYWORDS
Traditional techniques for extracting oil, refinement of crude oil, derivatives of petroleum, strategic utilization of oil,
drilling for oil reservoirs, oil sector.
INTRODUCTION
In world history, oil, as the basis of liquid hydrocarbon
fuel, is of great importance; it has been known to
mankind since ancient times; various petroleum
products are produced from it and are used as a driving
force in the processing, production, and transportation
of many other goods. Previously, oil was extracted
using simple primitive methods based on manual
labour; later, oil was extracted by manual drilling and
drilling with the help of machinery. With the growing
demand for oil in the world market, attention to the oil
industry has increased. As a result, new technologies
for oil production and refining were widely used. On
the territory of modern Uzbekistan, the first oil
industry was created in the Fergana Valley.
The article examines the history of the oil industry of
the Fergana Valley from the mid-19th century to the
end of the First World War, that is, on the border of the
Kokand Khanate and the Fergana region within the
Russian Empire. Among scientific studies in this area,
scientific studies carried out during the Soviet period
are distinguished by the fact that they approach the
topic from the point of view of colonial ideology. In
scientific research conducted during the years of
independence on the topic of the history of the
development of the industry, it is of particular
importance, since it is carried out on the principles of
historical truth and objectivity in covering the
development of the oil industry, infrastructure, impact
on nature and ecology in connection with the well-
being of the people of Uzbekistan.
Analysis of literature and sources on the topic. In
studying the history of the oil industry of the Fergana
Valley during the period of the Kokand Khanate and the
Russian Empire, scientific treatises and monographs on
this topic published in Soviet times and in the years of
independence,
textbooks,
historical
normative
documents related to this area, as well as information
contained in annual reports of oil industry enterprises
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in the region. In works written during the colonial
period of the Russian Empire, in studies conducted
during the Soviet period and during the years of
independence, as well as partially in scientific research
by foreign scientists, the topic is analyzed from the
point of view of the era. During the Soviet period, Sh.
Muzaparov conducted research work on the topic
“Culture and life of the Uzbek oil workers of the
Fergana Valley.” The work of Sh. Muzaparov provides
information about oil production at the Andijan,
Polvontosh, South Olamushik, North Sokh, Chimion,
Namangan oil fields in the Fergana Valley and about
workers working in the oil industry. During the years of
independence, I. N. Jamolhodji conducted scientific
research on the topic “History of the formation and
development of the oil industry in the Ferga
na Valley”
(1860-1917). This dissertation examines the raw
materials resources of the government of the Russian
Empire in the region, the history of the exploitation of
oil resources by Russian and foreign entrepreneurs,
and oil companies. During the study of publications and
scientific research on the topic, they were divided into
three groups. The first group includes literature from
the colonial period of the Russian Empire, the second
group includes publications from the Soviet period,
and the third group includes literature from the period
of independence. Information on the history of the oil
industry of the Fergana Valley during the period of the
Kokand Khanate and the Russian Empire can be found
in the books of Kh.N. Bobobekov “History of Kokand”,
I.
O. Brod “Underground Oil and Gas Resources of the
USSR”, Kh.H. Akhmadov, M. A. Musaeva, A. M. Syrkina,
L. Sh. Makhmudova, M. A. Takaeva “Extraction,
processing and research of Grozny oil during the 19th -
early 20th centuries”, A. R. Mukhidova, T. T. Tozhieva “
Black gold of Uzbekistan”, monographs by Kh.M.
Abdullaev “Underground resources of Uzbekistan in
the service of socialism” and A.A. Abidov, O.G. Khaitov,
I.Kh. Kholismatov “Geology of oil and gas”.
Research methodology. This article is devoted to the
study of the history of the oil industry of the Fergana
Valley during the period of the Kokand Khanate and the
Russian Empire. During this period, after the collapse
of the Kokand Khanate, the Russian Empire, as a result
of the introduction of Russian and foreign investments
in the process of studying, researching and developing
the natural resources of the colony, increased oil
production in the Fergana Valley to an industrial level;
in studying this process, comparative, historical and
factor analysis were used to coverage of the topic.
Conclusions and proposals were developed using
current research works and archival materials.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
In ancient times, oil was extracted and used for various
purposes in the North Caucasus, Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Burma, Malaysia, China, Romania, including the
Fergana Valley of Uzbekistan and a number of other
countries. The oil production and processing industry
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in the Fergana Valley was raised to the artisanal level
by local artisans and entrepreneurs living in the Kokand
Khanate from the mid-19th century, and by the
beginning of the 20th century, attention to this
industry increased. As a result, the oil industry reached
its peak in terms of the era.
A number of historical data confirm that the history of
oil production in the Fergana Valley actually took place
in the historical past. Many historians, geographers
and travelers mention this fishery in the Fergana Valley
in their notes. The first information about oil
production in Central Asia can be found in the works of
Greek, Arab and Russian scientists [9.P.2].
Historical information about the presence of oil wells
in the Fergana Valley and in Khorezm dates back to the
period BC; the ancient Greek historian Plutarch
reported that before Alexander the Great’s c
ampaign
in India, “The head of the royal sleeping bags, a
Macedonian named Proxenus, was preparing a place
near the Oxus River for Alexander's tent, discovered a
source of thick and greasy liquid. When they scooped
up what was on the surface, a clean and light stream
began to flow from the source, no different in smell or
taste from olive oil, just as transparent and greasy. This
was especially surprising because olive trees do not
grow in those areas. They say that in the Oxus itself the
water is very soft, and those who bathe in this river
have their skin covered with fat” (Plutarch, 1961:
XXXV), and later he saw that oil stood on the surface of
the earth in the village of Mailisoy, located in the north
of the Fergana Valley, and used it for your needs.
According to local residents, the oil well in the Mailisoy
area was later exploited under the name of Alexander
the Great [10.P.18].
Oil deposits discovered in the Fergana Valley were
widely used by local artisans. Healers well versed in
traditional medicine used the black oily liquid, filled
with the natural depths of the earth, as medicine.
People came from distant places and took bottles filled
with unrefined crude oil from the depths and used it as
a cure for itching and skin diseases [2.P.14].
Oil was widely used for military purposes. Those
besieged by the enemy defended themselves by
dousing the attackers with burning kerosene. Those
who attacked the enemy burned oil products on
arrows [10.P.9]. It can be seen that people have been
effectively using petroleum products since ancient
times.
Oil production has been developed since the mid-19th
century by local artisans using a method of collecting
oil from open wells, based on manual labor. Local
artisans and entrepreneurs who lived in the Khanate
extracted oil from oil wells using primitive methods, for
example, soaking with rags, or from surface wells using
ladles and buckets [10.P.10]. During this period, the
method of oil extraction by drilling was just discovered
in the world oil industry and had not yet been applied
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on the territory of the Khanate. The extracted oil was
used mainly for the needs of the population - for
medical purposes, as cheap fuel for lighting, in crafts
and for military purposes. In the Russian Empire,
starting in 1823, in the North Caucasus, the brothers
Vasily, Makar and Gerasim Dubinin, serfs, began the
industrial production of kerosene from oil by
distillation [4.P.8] great shifts in the field began to be
observed. Kerosene products are more convenient
than crude oil for medical and lighting purposes, and
their use has become popular. Kerosene was
considered the cheapest and most convenient of all
lamp oils known at that time [6.C.3]. In 1853, the Polish
pharmacist Ignacy Łukasiewicz invented and quickly
became popular the kerosene lamp, which was the
most efficient in terms of lighting power among the
lighting devices of that time (candles, lampshades,
etc.). For this reason, the extraction of kerosene from
oil has become widespread.
The chemical properties of oil obtained from fields on
the territory of the Kokand Khanate facilitated the
process of extracting kerosene from it. That is, the
absence of heavy deposits in the oil composition made
it possible to obtain more kerosene while spending less
technological costs on oil distillation [6.C.4]. The
products of local artisans were important not only for
the needs of the population living in the Khanate, but
also in foreign trade. Craftsmen and entrepreneurs
living in the Khanate successfully used oil wells to
produce products for export to neighboring countries.
In order to use the oil wells identified on the territory
of the Khanate, local artisans and entrepreneurs
received permission to rent oil wells. Archival sources
contain information that in the Kokand Khanate the
development of oil fields and the extraction of
petroleum products was carried out on the basis of the
permission of the Khan. In particular, it was recorded
that local businessman Polvon and merchant Mikhail
Fedorov rented an oil field for 1000 rubles for oil
produ
ction in the city of Namangan with the khan’s
label [11]. In addition, similar information can be found
in the works of Russian scientists who conducted
research on the territory of the Kokand Khanate.
Researcher A.P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871, exploring the
Southern Tien Shan, Fergana Valley, Aloy, Pamir
Mountains, discovered that there were many oil
sources in these areas. A.P. Fedchenko, exploring the
geography of the places he studied and the customs of
the peoples, wrote in his scientific work entitled
“Travel to Turkestan” that another thing that
interested him in research was oil. In his scientific work,
he records information about the discovery of an oil
spring by Haji Yunus from Tashkent at the foot of
Mount Mahram and that Haji Yunus received a khan's
label asking for permission to use an oil well from the
Kokand Khan [15.P.39]. In an article by another Russian
scientist A.A. Kushakevich, published in the journal
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“Russian Geographical Society” in 1871, he writes that
there are more than 200 oil springs on the territory of
the Kokand Khanate, including the Fergana Valley.
Later, there is information in the sources that in 1878
G.D. Romanovsky also found oil springs in many places
in the Fergana Valley [10.P.19]. If you pay attention to
the information given in the sources, you can note that
there were many oil wells on the territory of the
Kokand Khanate, and permission from the khan was
obtained for their use.
For example, the above-mentioned dissertation by I.N.
Jamolhodzhi contains the following provisions on how
oil was used by artisans in the Kokand Khanate. During
the Khanate period, lining fabrics called “nafti” and
“kora nafti” (black oil) were produced in the Fergana
Valley. There were also such fabrics as “Nafti
-
i rasmi”
(ordinary Nafti) and “Nafti beka sali”. Coats (tўn,
suzana) were made from “Nafti” fabric for nobles and
princesses. Nafti cloth is added to Chilla Kochdi sarpo
for women who have just given birth. For example, in
1872, for Sultan Murodbek, a rug was woven for
underfoot during prayer and socks from Nafti fabric.
Sultan Muradbek was the Bek of the Margilan region in
the Khanate [7.P.42].
Local artisans and traders who lived in the Khanate
extracted oil and made from it the necessary products
for the needs of the population. After the liquidation of
the Khanate of Kokand, the Russian Empire
appropriated the existing oil fields in the area and
began searching for new oil fields.
In 1868, Russian merchants Khludov, Zakho and
Gromov were the first to use the oil sources located in
the territories of the Kokand Khanate. But these
merchants quickly finished their work. They cited
delivery costs and other unfavorable conditions as the
reason. Russian merchants expected big profits, but it
didn't pay off on their books. Therefore, they quickly
finished the work [2.С.14].
The first geological research in Turkestan was carried
out in the Fergana Valley. At the end of the 19th
century, Russian geologists A.P. Fedchenko in 1871,
N.A. Severtsev in 1873, I.V. Mushketov in 1876, G.D.
Romanov in 1876, A.F. Middendorf 1882 went to the
Fergana Valley in order to identify oil deposits and
conducted geological research.
By the 1900s, geologists V.I. Weber, D.V.
Golubyatnikov, V.D. Sokolov, V.A. Obruchev, K.P.
Kalitsky conducted scientific research to identify new
oil fields in the Fergana Valley. In 1912-1914, geologist
K.P. Kalitsky compiled a geological map of the Mailisoy,
Rishtan, Shorsuv and Selrokho areas in the Fergana
Valley, where oil fields are located [16.P.10].
Before the revolution of 1917 in Russia, a number of
private enterprises and artels were engaged in the
search, exploration and exploitation of oil fields in
Turkestan. They carried out exploration of deposits
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based on research, assessments and analyzes by V.I.
Weber, D.V. Golubyatnikov, V.D. Sokolov, V.A.
Obruchev, K.P. Kalitsky. Maps were also drawn up
showing areas rich in oil. Russian entrepreneurs D.P.
Petrov and A.D. Germanov, relying on these sources,
cheaply bought some land plots in the Fergana Valley
[3.P.109-110].
In 1880-1883, in the Lokan site, located in the
Kamyshbashi region of the Fergana Valley, 4 oil
exploration wells were dug, the remains of which are
still preserved. These oil wells were percussively drilled
to depths of up to 36.2 meters and a width of 219 mm
(8 inches). There is information that from the first dug
oil wells, from 5 to 12 tons of oil were extracted, and
from wells 2-2.5 meters deep, 10 tons of oil were
extracted per day. At that time, D.P. Petrov was the
first entrepreneur to start industrial oil production. In
1885, D.P. Petrov bought several oil fields. In the same
year, he discovered oil wells in Shorsuv at a depth of
35-40 meters and manually dug two wells in this field.
Using a long bucket with a valve at the bottom, two
workers from these wells extracted 400-500 kg of oil
per day and 100-130 tons of oil per year. Entrepreneur
D.P. Petrov built himself a small plant where he
extracted kerosene by pumping oil. He sold separated
kerosene in Tashkent, Andijan and other cities
[17.P.18].
In 1898, a group of entrepreneurs led by engineer S.A.
Kovalevsky began searching for oil fields in the area of
the villages of Chimion and Yarkotan in the Fergana
Valley, relying on the recommendations of geologist-
paleontologist G.D. Romanovsky. As a result, several
wells were drilled using the percussion method. By
1901, the first well was drilled using a percussion
method using a mechanized machine. In 1904, an oil
reservoir 278 meters deep was discovered and oil
flowed like a fountain. 130 tons of oil were extracted
from this well per day [3.P.110].
Until now, oil was used as it seeped to the surface of
the well. The need to build an oil refinery in the area
arose as a result of oil seeping out of the ground. This
year, construction of the first oil refinery in Central Asia
began in the Fergana Valley near the Vannovsky
station. This plant was built by railway engineer A.N.
Kovalevsky and put into operation in 1906. As a result
of oil refining at the plant, kerosene and fuel oil
contained in oil were obtained [10.P.21]. The
construction of this plant gave impetus to the
development of the oil industry.
After the plant was put into operation, interest in the
oil industry of the Fergana Valley increased, and
foreign capital began to flow. By 1907, the Chimion oil
field was purchased by the Nobel brothers, a firm
involved in the oil industry in the Russian Empire. The
Nobel brothers had extensive experience in the oil
industry. The Nobel brothers company also took its
place in the global oil industry. In 1878, the Nobel
Brothers Company built the world's first tanker, the
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Zoroaster, with a carrying capacity of 242 tons, and
began transporting oil from Baku, Azerbaijan, to
Tsaritsyn (Volgograd), Russia.
Professor Paul Stevens, an English researcher who
studied the history of the international oil industry,
compares the activities of the Nobel Brothers company
with the activities of the Standard Oil Trust, owned by
the famous American billionaire D. D. Rockefeller, and
evaluates it as a competitor in Europe and the Russian
Empir
e [1] . It can be seen that the Nobel brothers’
company was able to compete with the world’s leading
companies and had its own experience. Based on this
experience and large investments, the company of the
Nobel brothers, after purchasing the Chimion oil fields,
began research in this territory. In 1909-1910, as a result
of exploration of the area, the Yarkhtan oil field was
discovered near Chimion and oil production began. As
a result of these studies, the oil industry of the Fergana
Valley grew. The Nobel brothers' company existed until
1918, that is, until the nationalization of the mining
industry of Turkestan.
The Chimion oil field was purchased by the Nobel
brothers.
Using
sufficient
experience,
new
technologies and foreign capital to develop the oil
industry, the oil produced by drilling oil wells is sent to
the oil refinery through special pipes using pumps. As a
result, a new stage began in the oil industry. By 1913,
the volume of oil production from the Chimion oil fields
increased to 13 thousand tons. But during the First
World War, oil production declined. This was
influenced by several factors.
Firstly, during the World War, the export of petroleum
products decreased as a result of the closure of foreign
trade routes due to the war.
Secondly, because of the war, the amount of capital
invested in this sector decreased sharply, and
therefore oil production decreased.
Third, the change in oil production volumes was also
influenced by the involvement of skilled oil industry
workers in the war.
Fourthly, as a result of the coup d'etat in the Russian
Empire, indicators in this area decreased. For example,
in 1916, 11,900,000 thousand pounds of oil were
produced from oil wells in the Fergana Valley, and in
1917, 2,141,292 pounds of oil were produced from oil
wells [12].
In addition to the Chimion oil fields in the Fergana
Valley, by 1908, oil exploration work had begun near
the village of Sel Rojo in the territory of modern
Tajikistan and several oil wells were discovered. Oil
extraction from identified oil wells by drilling has
shown its effectiveness. As a result, oil was extracted
from a depth of 245 meters, and in 1909 an oil refinery
was built near the Melnikov station.
In 1912, a group of traders founded SANTO (Central
Asian Petroleum and Trading Society) based on the Sel
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Rojo oil field. During this period, this society was led by
management located in the city of St. Petersburg.
Drilling and oil production were carried out at an oil
refinery built near the Melnikov railway station. By
1915, an oil refinery and processing plant was built. At
the plant, kerosene and fuel oil were separated from
the oil composition and sent through pipes to the
Melnikov station [10.P.20].
The volume of oil production from the oil fields of both
plants located in the Fergana Valley decreased during
the First World War. This situation can be observed
based on diagram No. 1 [13].
Diagram No. 1
If you pay attention to the indicators presented in the
table, during the First World War, oil production
volumes decreased sharply. This process was also due
to the above factors. However, as a result of the
development of transport and logistics, automobile
manufacturing and other industries in the empire, the
need for oil and petroleum products, particularly
produced in the Fergana Valley, has increased. This
process led to the development of oil refining
technologies.
Since 1901, oil wells began to be drilled using
mechanized methods. But, despite this, due to the fact
that much of the work was done manually, in 1901-1917,
34,900 meters of drilling work was done in the
Chimion, Yarkotan, SANTO areas of the Fergana Valley,
which is an average of 2000 meters per year. [9.P.19].
This, in turn, indicates how complex the processes of
extracting oil from wells were at that time.
By the 1910s, as a result of the start of oil drilling in the
oil fields in the Fergana Valley by the Nobel brothers
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with diesel engines “Ludwing Nobel”, “Poylar”,
“Felzer”, “Otto Dietz”, local workers worked 12
-14
hours a day. The company management allowed only
Muslim oil workers who worked at the Chimion fields
to return from work only on Eid al-Adha [7.P.96].
Before World War I, Russians, Iranians, Uzbeks, Tajiks,
Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Tatars and Armenians worked in the
Chimion oil fields. During the First World War, prisoners
of war of Czech, Austrian, Hungarian and German
nationalities worked in temporary jobs. They were
housed in miners' barracks. The largest building in the
miners' barracks was the workers' building, which
consisted of 8 separate houses located next to each
other. Each work building accommodates 450-500
people. These houses housed Russians, Tatars,
Iranians, later Czech prisoners of war, Hungarians,
Germans, as well as Uzbeks who came to work from
distant villages [9.P.91].
In 1917, 68 wells with a depth of 280-300 meters were
drilled at the Chimion, Yarkotan, SANTO oil fields in the
Fergana Valley. Wells of this depth were drilled using
the percussion method over a period of one and a half
to two years. At the Chimion oil field, percussion
drilling was carried out using iron rods using the Baku
methodshock-rod drilling. At the Santo oil field, oil
production was carried out using the Grozny
methodshock-rope drilling[9.P.25]. In the period from
1904 to 1917, 437.3 thousand tons were produced in
Turkestan, an average of 33.6 thousand tons per year
and approximately 95 tons of oil per day, these figures
can be seen in diagram No. 2. [9.P.26].
Diagram No. 2
As in many fields of the Russian Empire, oil production
in the Fergana Valley was carried out by private
entrepreneurs without observing the usual rules of
subsoil protection, which led to watering and
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
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American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research
(ISSN
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VOLUME
03
ISSUE
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P
AGES
:
299-310
SJIF
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FACTOR
(2021:
5.
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)
(2022:
6.
015
)
(2023:
7.
164
)
OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
premature depletion of a number of oil wells. As a
result, oil production at some fields was stopped
[9.P.27].
CONCLUSION
Thus, from the middle of the 19th century, that is,
during the time of the Kokand Khanate and the
beginning of the 20th century, the processes of oil
production and refining in the Fergana Valley
intensified. Local artisans and entrepreneurs, using
primitive methods, collected oil from existing oil wells,
prepared the necessary products for export abroad,
while meeting the needs of the local population, and
promoted oil extraction and refining. By the beginning
of the twentieth century, oil drilling began. As a result
of the introduction of foreign capital into the oil
industry, the introduction of new methods and means
of oil production, and the use of advanced experience
in this area of industry, this industry grew. But during
the First World War, the rate of oil production in the
Fergana Valley decreased, as well as throughout the
empire, as a result, Russia fell far behind the United
States in competition in the world oil market.
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