How to Cite
Usmanova, S., & Mirkhamidova, M. (2021). Impacts of Islamic tourism on international peace and security:
opportunities and threats.
International Journal of Social Sciences
,
4
(3), 325-334.
https://doi.org/10.31295/ijss.v4n3.1759
ISSN 2632-9409
Submitted: 27 July 2021|Revised: 18 August 2021| Accepted: 09 Sept 2021
325
Impacts of Islamic Tourism on International Peace and Security:
Opportunities and Threats
Surayyo Usmanova
Associate Professor of the Department of International Law and Human Rights of UNESCO at the University of
World Economy and Diplomacy, Uzbekistan
Corresponding author email:
Mahinnora Mirkhamidova
Senior Lecturer of the Department of International Law and Human Rights of UNESCO at the University of World
Economy and Diplomacy, Uzbekistan
Email:
Abstract---
The relations between Islamic tourism and security issues do not possess the unique attitude from the
perspectives of theory and practice of international studies. This research offers an engaging assessment of the
linkages and interconnections between Islamic tourism and international security. How does the Islamic tourism
impact on maintaining peace and security in the world or vice versa neglecting it? The role of international
institutions, Islamic tourism development and case of Uzbekistan for progressing this direction of tourism are
analyzed by the author. The research focuses on settling these issues by developing conclusions and proposals
regarding the promotion of Islamic tourism and peace in the world.
Keywords---
Islam, organization of Islamic cooperation, peace, security, terrorism, tourism, Uzbekistan
Introduction
The relations between Islamic tourism and security issues do not possess the unique attitude from the perspectives of
theory and practice of international studies and international law. Islamic tourism is not purely motivated by religion.
Islamic tourism was created as a form of religious tourism because Muslims are motivated to visit religious
ceremonies, conferences, functions, and centers
. In this study, Islamic tourism refers to tourism by
, or any activity, event, experience or indulgence undertaken in a state of travel that
is compliant with Islam, to interface within an Islamic framework with one or all of the following: history, culture,
arts, heritage, way of life, economy, health, education and any other human interests. There are various studies that
propose logical, socioeconomic and cultural explanations of the terrorism-tourism relationship. The literature and
statistics all confirm that terrorist attacks alter tourism demand patterns, indicating an increasing demand to cancel
travel or holiday plans particularly just after the 9/11 terrorist attack
(Chen & Noriega, 2004; Floyd et al. 2003;
. This research offers an engaging assessment of the linkages and interconnections
between Islamic tourism and international security. How does the Islamic tourism impact on maintaining peace and
security in the world or vice versa neglecting it?
Methods
The study provides an important analysis for researchers of Islamic tourism, terrorism, international security issues,
international affairs, and related subjects. Therefore, content and descriptive analyses of scientific articles on Muslim
tourism
Akbulut & Ekin, (2018); Akyol & Kilinc (2014)
, terrorism and security issues
326
, Muslim/Halal Travel Market: Basic Concepts, Terms, and
Definitions.Crescent Rating, Singapore; In their research of tourism and terrorism, scholars applied a qualitative
, and a quantitative approach
(Ahlfeldt et al., 2015; Buigut & Amendah, 2016; Enders &
Sandler, 1991; Fielding & Shortland, 2011; Masinde, 2016; Raza & Jawaid, 2013)
. The Statistical, Economic and
Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries, the OIC 10th Islamic Tourism Ministers Conference’s
data, Global Terrorism Index, of various countries and international organizations mentioned by the author.
Concepts of Islamic pilgrimage tourism and “Halal” tourism
In Islam, ziyara(h) (Arabic: زيارة ziyārah, "visit") or ziyarat (Persian: زيارة, ziyārat, "pilgrimage") is a form of
pilgrimage to sites associated with venerated figures in Islam such as the Prophets, Sufi auliya, and Islamic scholars.
Sites of pilgrimage include mosques, mausoleums, and battlefields. Islamic Pilgrimage tourism or Ziyarah tourism is
considered to be a recent phenomenon in the theory and practice of not only Islamic countries, but also in global
tourism. Traditionally this type of tourism was often associated with Hajj and Umrah. However, at present it is
defined in a broader sense as all forms of Islamic Pilgrimage tourism that include not only two pilgrimage
destinations but many new destinations in which Muslim tourists can combine both sightseeing and religious duties.
Recently there has been an influx of products and services designed specifically to cater to the business and
leisure related segments of Muslim tourists across the globe. The Muslim tourism market has witnessed rapid growth
over the years and emerged as one of the fastest growing segments of the global tourism market. Particularly, by
2017 the number of Muslim tourists amounted to 131 million people, and the income from Muslim tourism reached
142 billion US dollars. This shows that pilgrim tourism is one of the fastest growing segments of the global tourism
industry. It is expected that by 2020 the number of Muslim tourists in the world will reach 160 million people, the
turnover from this type of tourism by 2026 will be $ 300 billion.
Halal tourism as a concept has been used with different names which were stated in official documents of the
Organization of Islamic Cooperation and connotations in the tourism theory and practice. Halal tourism, Sharia
Tourism, and Muslim-friendly tourism are the most common terms, which are used alternatively. However, none of
these terminologies has a universally understood definition
. The halal term means ‘permissible'
according to Islamic teaching (Sharia law)
. Ideally, the tourists with the motive to join pilgrimage
need Muslim friendly conditions in the country of destination. According to the theory, major Components of
Islamic Tourism are considered to be:
Halal Hotels which means that some of the main indicators of an Islamic hotel include: no alcohol, gambling
etc.; Halal food only; Quran, prayer mats and arrows indicating the direction of Mecca in every room; Beds
and toilets positioned so as not to face the direction of Mecca; Prayer rooms; Conservative staff dress; Islamic
funding; Separate recreational facilities for men and women.
Halal Transport (Airlines); Major indicators for halal transport include: cleanliness; nonalcoholic drinks;
Halal Food Premises: Foods that served in a restaurant have to be halal. All animals must be slaughtered
according to Islamic principles. No alcoholic drinks should be served on the premise.
Halal Tour Packages: The content of the tour packages must be based on an Islamic theme. The Islamic tour
packages include visits to the mosques, Islamic monuments and promote an event during the Ramadan.
Halal Finance: The financial resources of the hotel, restaurant, travel agency, and the airlines have to be fit
with Islamic principles. In general, Islamic finance requires participation in sharing the profit and loss among
of all parties who involved in this finance enterprise
A good image of Islamic environment for "halal" food and modern conditions make the Muslim tourists feel
safe to consume halal products. Branding as Islamic and halal hub has brought several Muslim countries (as
Malaysia, Singapore, Turkey, Indonesia) to move into the halal matter in these recent years. The rules made to
ensure the safety and control the behavior of the tourist which is forbidden in Islam as long as they staying in
those countries (Malaysia, Indonesia).
Organization of Islamic Cooperation – opportunities and challenges for Islamic pilgrimage tourism development
Islamic tourism as a concept has been used with different names which were stated in official documents of the
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (further as OIC) and connotations in the tourism theory and practice. Halal
tourism, Sharia Tourism and “Ziyarah” tourism are the most common terms, which are used alternatively. However,
327
none of these terminologies has a universally understood definition. This factor does not obstacle to the development
and improvement this type of tourism in the world.
The OIC is the largest and most influential Intergovernmental Muslim organization. Initially, it consisted of 25
states of Asia and Africa and the Palestine Liberation Organization. Currently it unites 57 countries with a population
of about 1.5 billion people. The 57 Members of the OIC are the major source market for the global Islamic tourism
industry. With estimated tourism expenditures of over $100 billion, these countries account for around 82 per cent of
the total tourism expenditures made by the Muslim tourists in 2013-2014. Tourism has been defined as one of the ten
priority areas of cooperation in the OIC Plan of Action to Strengthen Economic and Commercial Cooperation among
the Member Countries which was adopted in 1994
. The proof could be found from statistics,
particularly, the number of international tourist arrivals in the OIC countries, for which the data are available, grew
by 3.3 per cent and increased to 174.7 million in 2013, corresponding to a 16.1 percent share in the total international
tourist arrivals worldwide. Furthermore, this sector occupies remarkable position in the GDPs of OIC states.
The role of the Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation (COMCEC) which also influence on developing tourism sector in the OIC states is important in
realizing this sector. It has been functioning as the responsible div within the OIC for enhancing economic and
commercial cooperation among the 57 Member States of the OIC. COMCEC has initiated cooperation in various
sectors including finance, transport, agriculture, tourism, and poverty alleviation to enhance economic relations
among the member countries. These efforts have also yielded various important projects and forums such as the
OIC/COMCEC Private Sector Tourism Forum, The OIC Stock Exchanges Forum, and The COMCEC Capital
Markets Regulators Forum.
From the perspective’s Islamic tourism and Islamic pilgrimage tourism, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation
(OIC) has prepared the Strategic Roadmap for the development of Islamic tourism among the OIC member states.
The Roadmap provides a methodological framework for enhancing cooperation among member states in the field of
tourism in order to improve and identify the necessary resources, in addition to defining main themes of the future of
tourism in member countries through Islamic tourism standards and quality control project. Cooperation in Islamic
tourism comprised five areas — including data and monitoring, policy and regulation, marketing and promotion,
destination and industry development, capacity development to promote inter-Islamic cooperation as well as
improving the ecosystem of Islamic tourism in the OIC member states (10th Islamic Tourism Ministers Conference
to be held in Dhaka, Bangladesh on February 5-7., 2018). The particular document is considered to be the continues
of the Resolution on tourism development among the OIC member states from 2013.
Linkages between tourism and terrorism
The connection between terrorism and tourism has been the subject of study for decades
. The belief that the numerous parts of the world, as the Middle East, Pakistan, Afghanistan are
turning out to be the main centers of terrorism
. Consequently, these countries are not definitely
considered to be tourist destinations. So, the lack of instability and security in the state influence on attracting
tourists and economic growth of the country. There are two different approaches in terms of linkages between
terrorism as a threat to peace and security, and tourism as an impact on the development of states. Supporters of the
first approach consider that the majority of attacks on tourists have taken place in the less-developed or the poorest
countries of the world, where tourism plays a key role in the economy. Wanting to discourage tourists from visiting
the country, terrorists also hamper the economic and social development of a given region at the same time. This
leads to the view that political instability is an integral part of factors which influence on tourism. Travel and tourism
effect on the factors leading to terrorism by encouraging socio-economic development, creating more employment
opportunities and supporting mutual understanding and tolerance.
Other studies claim the opposite point. The number of irreplaceable losses is sadly growing too. These attacks
were mostly aimed at developed countries where the tourism industry plays an important role in geographical,
cultural, political and economic reasons. However, even the high level of security in these countries was not a
deterrent for these attacks. This makes any tourist in the world feel unsafe
(Mowforth & Munt, 1998; Korolev, 2007;
. Interestingly, terrorist attacks have, however, also brought some positive implications in terms of
economic development and security issues to the world's tourism industry. Crisis does not always just mean threats,
but can also mean new opportunities. Many new markets, especially Muslim countries’ market as the new
destination for tourism, such as the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Croatia, etc. have started to boom because they
have benefited from the situation where discouraged tourists started to cancel trips to the US and to some Middle
East and European regions. They changed their travel plans to what they perceived as safer destinations. Hence, not
328
only threats but also considerable positive opportunities for other countries could be attracted as the results of
terrorism.
“Islamophobia” and terrorism – as an obstacle for tourism and Islamic tourism development
After the attacks on the World Trade Centre on September 11, 2001, the number of Western tourists visiting Islamic
countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Malaysia or Jordan significantly decreased. To support the declining tourism
industry in the Middle East, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation created initiatives to encourage the
development of tourism in the region. The major goal of these initiatives was to improve tourism in the region
through developing new destinations and promoting Islamic heritage and culture, adjusting the tourism industry to
Islamic customs and norms, and concentrating on the development of Islamic tourism.
There are various studies that propose logical socioeconomic and cultural explanations of the terrorism-tourism
relationship. In a study of terrorism in Egypt, where Sharm el-Sheikh is located
, counter-argues the
misconception that Islam is against foreign tourists outright with his socioeconomic rationalization. He argues that
tourists and local people are separated not only by language, but by social and economic gaps too. When locals
facing hardship are forced to co-exist with wealthy international tourists enjoying luxuries, friction is inevitable. This
supports
, suggestion that travel styles can be representative of ideological values, class
behavior and political and political culture of tourists and their countries. Therefore, tourists may be the targets of
terrorism because of their tourism styles which may demonstrate conspicuous consumption. Today, most experts
believe that certain parts of the Middle East, Pakistan, Afghanistan and sub-Saharan Africa are turning out to be the
main power centers for terrorism. Decades of lawlessness and corruption have seen terrorist groups fill the power
vacuum in these regions which continue to turn out an alarming number of motivated terrorists
Creating such misunderstanding, panic, and enmity with so-called ‘Islamophobia' has led to a generalized
confused image that Muslims and Islam represent terrorism, which complicates the situation even more. On the other
hand, international organizations and legislation try to foster the respect and protection of religious rights and holy
places. The Organization of the Islamic Cooperation relies on international instruments and UN resolutions to work
against the defamation of religions. Hence, sanctuaries or destinations of religious tourism should be protected from
harm such as acts of war or terror attacks
, religiously motivated terrorism and conflicts
could lead to security and economic disasters not only nationally and regionally but even globally. As the world
community focuses on sustainable development in all spheres, it is considerable to encourage sustainable Islamic
tourism development by defending it from terrorism’s threats and making more opportunities to develop this type of
tourism in developing and less developed countries.
Decreasing terrorism through tourism
Effort to keep tourism and for Muslim countries Islamic tourism as an integral aspect of states’ economy
development notwithstanding the threats of terrorism should be continued. Tourism is perceived as economic driver
of many economies and as such understanding and preventing possible security treats is paramount for every
country. Although the ambiguity about this topic is present among authors, there is no doubt that potential risk
significantly impacts tourists` behaviour
. According to
, the nature and characteristics of
terrorism differ across countries. In the case of Turkey, UK and Germany, it seems there is an issue related to
attracting terrorist attacks, while the case of Spain and Italy points to a different conclusion.
As far as political implications are concerned, each country needs to provide an adequate policy aimed at
combating terrorism, which will create a positive picture on the tourist map, as the fact is that after a terrorist attack,
tourists only delay their spending from one period to the next
. Political leaders of each country
should be focused on maintaining a low to moderate political risk which ensures that the country, despite terrorism,
achieves positive tourist results
. Moreover, the need for preventive action and continuous
investment in the safety of the destination, thus preserving the image of a safe destination
Furthermore, according to the WTTC study, the impact of terrorism on tourism does not last long. To illustrate, it
takes 13 months for tourism to recover from a terrorist attack, while it takes 21 months to recover from a disease, 24
months to recover from an environmental disaster and 27 months to recover from political unrest
According to foreign researchers’ attitudes states should mainly invest in guarding their borders, collecting
preventive intelligence, and building effective border control, in addition to establishing international cooperation
and sharing information about potential foreign terrorists
(Goldman & Neubauer-Shani, 2017)
. Tourism is
inextricably linked to international relations, and these relationships, on the one hand, involve international
329
organizations, and, on the other, bilateral cooperation. The participation in international and regional tourism
organizations, the implementation of advanced practice of foreign countries in development tourism through close
cooperation is an important factor in accelerated improvement of this sphere. Simultaneously, effective cooperation
influence on decreasing the terrorist attacks in potential tourism developed countries and making preventive
intelligence on cooperation on this actual issue. Here, it should be emphasized that, tourism weaken the factors
leading to terrorism by encouraging economic and social development, creating employment opportunities,
meanwhile supporting tolerance and mutual understanding.
Significance of tourism in maintaining peace in the world
Peace and tourism belong together, they are interrelated. Without peace there can be no tourism, but tourism can also
contribute to the peace process– the building of peace. Building peace, promoting tourism and implementing
sustainability are fundamentally moral issues. One of the main legal sources of international tourism is the Manila
Declaration, from 1980, which determines that, the world tourism can develop in a climate of peace and security
which can be achieved through the joint effort of all States in promoting the reduction of international tension and in
developing international cooperation in a spirit of friendship, respect for human rights and understanding among all
States. Hence it is clear that, touristic activity can only flourish on concord and quiet states. Furthermore, its ultimate
aim is the improvement of the quality of life and the creation of better living conditions for all peoples, worthy of
human dignity. It means that, these two terms as “peace” and “tourism” are depend on each other. Tourism is an
opportunity for governments to create jobs, reduce poverty and foster economic growth. Hence, development of the
tourism causes not only to the rising of economy and image of state; moreover, it helps to provide peace and stability
in the country.
Then, the Acapulco document on tourism reaffirmed once again that “world tourism can be a vital force for world
peace and can provide the moral and intellectual basis for international understanding and interdependence among
nations” and “can contribute to the establishment of new international economic order that will help to eliminate the
economic gap between developed and developing countries”. Another important international act – UNWTO charter,
in the 3rd article, outlines as the main objective of the Organization is to promote the development of tourism in
order to contribute to economic development, international understanding, peace, prosperity, universal respect and
observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all people without distinction as to race, gender, language
or religion. And so, for the first time, the role of “tourism as a vital force for peace” was enshrined in a formal
document of the world’s premier tourism organization representing the nations and governments of the world. U.N.
Ex-Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has stated: “Tourism is the people’s building block for global peace and cultural
understanding. It can also help drive economic growth and alleviate poverty”
The UNWTO believes that the 2017-2022 years, the annual growth of international tourism will continue, but at a
more moderate pace, and will be 3.3 %. As a result, the tourism market will grow each year by an average of 43
million. While maintaining the projected growth rate the number of arrivals will reach 1.48 million people in 2022, it
is expected that the number of international arrivals in growing economies (+4.4% per year) will continue to grow
two times faster than international arrivals in advanced economies (+2.2% annually). World Council of travel and
tourism for the period 2017-2022 years provides positive dynamics of the tourism sector of the world economy:
projected annual growth in demand for tourism services by 4.6 %, the gross production of tourism services by 3.5 %,
capital investments by 4.8% and the number of people in employment in the tourism sector at 1.4 %
. Tourism is an opportunity for governments to create jobs, reduce poverty and foster economic growth.
Consequently, development of the tourism causes not only to the raise of economy and prestige of states; moreover,
it helps to provide peace and stability in the country.
Case of Uzbekistan – new period for Islamic pilgrimage tourism development and attitudes on providing security
Uzbekistan is one of the Central Asian countries which has a unique heritage of Islamic culture and historical
monuments and possesses great interest and potential for tourist flow from Muslim countries and Muslims from
other parts of the world. The country hosts important cities known in the Muslim world such as Bukhara and
Samarkand. The names of such great figures as Imam Al-Bukhari, Imam At-Termizi, Imam Al-Maturudi, Baha-ud-
Din Naqshbandi, Az-Zamakshariy are well known in the history of not only Muslim countries, but around the world.
Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world and is projected that there will be 2.2 billion Muslims by 2030
. Because of the growing number of Muslims, the importance and need of Muslim pilgrims
for more undiscovered destinations will make a sense.
330
Since 2017, tourism has become a strategic sector of the national economy, this sphere promotes the growth of
international prestige of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Moreover, the Decree of the President of the Republic of
Uzbekistan "On Measurements for intensified development of the tourism industry in the Republic of Uzbekistan"
and the continue these reforms serve as an important step at the beginning of a new period for further reforms in this
sector. Moreover, in the Crescent Rating that ranks nations in halal tourism, Uzbekistan was designated the 29th
position in 2017. Tourism is inextricably linked to international relations, and these relationships, on the one hand,
involve international organizations, and, on the other, bilateral cooperation. The participation in international and
regional tourism organizations, the implementation of advanced practice of foreign countries in developing
Uzbekistan’s tourism through close cooperation with partner countries is an important factor in accelerated
development of this sphere
(Luthe & Wyss, 2014; Boniface, 1998)
. However, tourism brand of Uzbekistan as a
destination for pilgrimage tourism does not develop and well-known yet. This could be observed while analyzing the
survey, which was organized by foreign experts during several months of 2017. The results show that only 2,2 % of
total visitors (from 100%) in that period wanted to join pilgrimage. It proves that most of the tourism resources in
Uzbekistan concentrated on historical and cultural issues, it is necessary to use existed potential regarding pilgrimage
tourism by the development of various tourism resources and institutional-legal conditions for it.
Namely, Baha-ud-Din Naqshbandi is now recognized as the Sultan of Sufism
. This may be an important destination for attracting tourists for the Sufi pilgrimage and religious-cognitive
destination. Furthermore, pilgrimage tourists with this visit could get an opportunity to join another historical,
cultural and religious places of Uzbekistan. For instance, Samarkand possesses the unique tourism places as Al-
Bukhariy mausoleum, Tomb of St. Daniel (profit of three major religions), Mausoleum and Ruhobod Mosque (tomb
of Sheikh Burhanuddin Sagardji, the spiritual mentor of Amir Timur), Shakhi Zinda Necropolis, etc. It is worth to
note that, researchers in tourism and management spheres of Uzbekistan have already organized the special 7-day
tour with more than 30 destinations from Tashkent to Bukhara for pilgrim. These places would be in the center of
interest not only religious tourists but moreover, secular one also values the uniqueness of these historical places.
The fact that, "there are more than 4 thousand architectural and cultural-historical monuments in the Republic;
moreover 20 of them are included in the list of the world cultural heritage of UNESCO", proves the idea
Shackley, 1997; Kantarci, 2007)
Moreover, foreign researchers declared that Uzbekistan is not an important tourism destination in the world
tourism arena. Lack of unified tourism policy and strategy are urgent issues that stand in front of tourism
development
. Therefore, nowadays the government of Uzbekistan intends to focus on
multidirectional development of tourism. The ongoing reforms and changes show that, from December 2016 (from
Mirziyoyev’s Presidency), more than 50 legal norms (bylaws and laws) elaborated in the sphere of tourism
. And the last important policy document on it was the elaboration of the “Concept of tourism development in
the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2019 - 2025” by the State Committee for Tourism Development of the Republic of
Uzbekistan. Furthermore, it could be also noted numerous destinations in this sphere as:
The introduction of a visa-free regime in uzbekistan for a period of 30 days for citizens of 64 countries,
including indonesia, malaysia, turkey, and the united arab emirates.
Introduction of “pilgrim visa” issued for up to 2 months to foreign citizens who come to make pilgrimages
and study the cultural, historical, religious and spiritual heritage, traditions of uzbekistan.
Introduction of halal standards into practice in catering and restaurants in uzbekistan since february 2018 and
much more.
It is worth noting that in February 2019, within the framework of the I International Forum on Ziyarah Tourism, the
Bukhara Declaration was signed on recognizing Uzbekistan as one of the centers of Ziyarah tourism. One of the
participants of this remarkable event Ph.D. from Kazan Federal University Azat Akhunov emphasized, that
Uzbekistan with its historical and religious potential could develop Ziyarah tourism. Particularly the country
possesses unique destinations for Hanafi madhab and Sufism supporters. These are the steps which should begin
years ago, the priority of the maintenance the peace and security in the country till 2016, and the threat of religious
terrorism and extremism prevented the development of Islamic pilgrimage tourism. It is time to develop further by
saving these two main factors- peace and security of Uzbekistan, the issues of peace and security do belong to all the
nations of the world. This reason cannot be an obstacle to further economic and social development of the state. The
government should comply with maintaining peace and security because almost every sphere of life depends on this
factor. However, this motive could not reject the economic and social progress of the Republic and its population
331
Islamic pilgrimage tourism- as a response to the decrease in unemployment in the countries
One of the most important goals of any state is to achieve employment of the working population, which is a
prerequisite for economic growth and social stability in the country. Complete and effective employment is the goal
of any socio-economic policy country. This policy is implemented through a set of measures to influence the labor
market
(Leach, 2003; Tsiakis & Stephanides, 2005)
. It focuses on the sphere of social and labor relations aimed at
reducing unemployment and the creation of conditions for more employment. Maintain permanent employment is
one of the priority policy objectives. Tourism is among the world's most important exporting sectors; and is labor
rather than capital intensive, which means that it has a great capacity to create new jobs in times when
unemployment has reached unthinkable rates and when this issue may undermine the future of the world's economy
and society. In general, the development of touristic infrastructure in developing and less developed states leads to
the organization a remarkable amount of reduction of unemployment in the country. Considering the population
which will be employed in the numerous service sectors like hotel and restaurant, handicraft making, small business
owners' etc. functioning is connected with tourism. A notable fact is that some functioning of this sphere does not
demand complicated or special high education skills
(Slesman et al., 2015; Kutluk et al., 2018)
From the perspectives of pilgrimage tourism development, the organization of Muslim oriented conditions for
tourists requires infrastructure. Muslim friendly tourism in those type of states should be constructed according to the
international standards. A particular number of professionals will be employed in this sphere. Consequently, the
current issue of unemployment will be decreased in the country level. As the largest intergovernmental Islamic
organization – the Organization of Islamic Cooperation should focus on the threats caused by the terrorism issues on
tourism in its member states from one hand, and especially Islamic pilgrimage tourism development. For the
majority of the OIC member states’ tourism and Islamic pilgrimage tourism become one of the important sources of
income and considerable part of their GDP
(Fathoni & Lanrong, 2021; Said et al., 2021)
Conclusion and Recommendation
Islamic tourism and peace have been relatively disregarded, which is surprising given the revival of the latter.
Therefore, one of the keys to an effective solution of these acute problems lies in the development within the
universal and regional intergovernmental organizations as the UNO and the OIC. The elaboration of a UN document
aimed specifically at establishing principles for countering the terrorist threat to international tourism. As the only
intergovernmental universal organization - the United Nations World Tourism Organization could adopt Special
“Roadmap” on measurements to struggle against terrorism as the important threat for tourism and Islamic tourism
development
(Al-Hamarneh & Steiner, 2004; Alpay, 2013)
Furthermore, the unanimous cooperation on Islamic tourism development of all state members of the OIC also
should be progressed. It is also suggested to adopt multilateral and bilateral agreements on Islamic tourism
development between the OIC and its member countries. The legal and institutional improvement influence on
Islamic tourism, which effects on countries’ economic growth
(Nassar et al., 2015; Tanaś, 2013)
. From the
perspectives of maintaining peace and security, these two are connected with each other. In order to defend countries'
peace and security from terrorists' attacks, the suggested solution would be in three main directions as:
The strengthening internal security policy, which includes effective visa control, border control.
Sustainable cooperation on the struggle against terrorism and threats on bilateral basis and in the framework
of bilateral and multilateral collaboration.
Safety of tourism destination and international image of this destination as the secure for potential tourists by
improving infrastructure and promotion.
Unfortunately, these interconnected activities of the human being as – tourism and terrorism are linked with each
other. However, the threat of the last cannot be an obstacle to the development of Islamic tourism. It is suggested to
organize the activities of reorientation on positive images of states and maintenance of high tourism potential in
perspective Islamic tourism developed countries. Consequently, the positive factors overshadow off putting threats
like terrorism.
332
References
Ahlfeldt, G. M., Franke, B., & Maennig, W. (2015). Terrorism and international tourism: the case of
Germany.
Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik
,
235
(1), 3-21.
Airey, D., & Shackley, M. (1997). Tourism development in Uzbekistan.
Tourism Management
,
18
(4), 199-208.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(97)00006-X
Akbulut, O., & Ekin, Y. (2018). Perceptions And Attitudes Of Local People Toward Film Tourism Within The
Context Of Place Attachment.
Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo
,
27
, 276-293.
Akbulut, O., & Ekin, Y. (2018). Reflections of Hajj and Umrah pilgrimage on religious stores in Mugla-Turkey.
The
international journal of religious tourism and pilgrimage
,
6
(3), 18-29.
Akyol, M., & Kilinç, Ö. (2014). Internet And Halal Tourism Marketing.
Electronic Turkish Studies
,
9
(8).
Aleynikov, B. N., Shapirova, R. R., Kadyrov, M. A., & Ponomarev, A. A. (2017). Comparative Analysis of
International and Legal Documents on Tourism and Counteraction to the Threat of International
Terrorism.
Journal of Environmental Management & Tourism
,
8
(6 (22)), 1290-1306.
Al-Hamarneh, A., & Steiner, C. (2004). Islamic tourism: Rethinking the strategies of tourism development in the
Arab world after September 11, 2001.
Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East
,
24
(1),
173-182.
Alpay, S. (2013). International tourism in the OIC countries: Prospects and challenges.
Ankara: SESRIC Publication
.
Aziz, H. (1995). Understanding attacks on tourists in Egypt.
Tourism management
,
16
(2), 91-95.
Baker, D. (2014). The effects of terrorism on the travel and tourism industry.
The international journal of religious
tourism and pilgrimage
,
2
(1), 58-67.
Battour, M. (2018). Muslim travel behavior in halal tourism.
Mobilities, tourism and travel behavior-contexts and
boundaries
, 3-16.
Bobur, S. (2018). Innovative development of tourism in Uzbekistan.
American Journal of Economics and Business
Management
,
1
(1), 60-74.
Boniface, P. (1998). Tourism culture.
Annals of Tourism Research
,
25
(3), 748-750.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-
Boulal, S. (2017). The Impact of Terrorism on the Economic Sustainable Tourism Development of the Island of
Crete.
Athens Journal of Tourism
,
4
(4), 335-353.
Buigut, S., & Amendah, D. D. (2016). Effect of terrorism on demand for tourism in Kenya.
Tourism
Economics
,
22
(5), 928-938.
Bysyuk, V. (2010). Impact of 9/11 terrorist attacks on US and international tourism development.
Bachelor Thesis,
Modul University, Vienna, Austria
.
Cheer, J. M., & Lew, A. A. (2017). Sustainable tourism development: Towards resilience in
tourism.
Interaction
,
45
(1), 10-15.
Chen, R. J., & Noriega, P. (2004). The impacts of terrorism: Perceptions of faculty and students on safety and
security in tourism.
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing
,
15
(2-3), 81-97.
Chowdhury, A., Radke, C. J., & Weber, A. Z. (2017). Transport resistances in fuel-cell catalyst layers.
ECS
Transactions
,
80
(8), 321.
Crescent, R. (2015). Muslim/halal travel market: Basic concepts, terms and definitions.
Singapore: Crescent Rating
.
D’amore, L. (2014). Peace through tourism: An historical and future perspective.
PE of the K. the Centre of Peace
Research University/Austria (Ed.), International Handbook on Tourism and Peace
, 355-368.
Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., De Wolf, A., Mann, L., & Feddes, A. R. (2016). Terrorism,
radicalization
and
de-radicalization.
Current
Opinion
in
Psychology
,
11
,
79-84.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008
Economic, S. (2015). Social Research And Training Centre for Islamic Countries (SESRIC)(2015).
Measurement of
Poverty in OIC Member Countries: Enhancing National Statistical Capabilities
.
Eid, R., & El-Gohary, H. (2013). The impact of E-marketing use on small business enterprises' marketing
success.
The Service Industries Journal
,
33
(1), 31-50.
Enders, W., & Sandler, T. (1991). Causality between transnational terrorism and tourism: The case of Spain.
Studies
in Conflict & Terrorism
,
14
(1), 49-58.
Fathoni, A., & Lanrong, Y. (2021). Transportation policy toward sustainable tourism development: Province of East
Java, Indonesia.
International Journal of Social Sciences
,
4
(1), 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.31295/ijss.v4n1.350
Fielding, D., & Shortland, A. (2011). How do tourists react to political violence? An empirical analysis of tourism in
Egypt.
Defence and Peace Economics
,
22
(2), 217-243.
333
Floyd, M., Pennington-Gray, L., & Thapa, B. (2003). The Effects of Risk Perception on Intention to Travel in the
Aftermath of September 11, 2001. Safety and Security in Tourism: relationships. Management and Marketing.
Foucault, M. (1991).
The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality
. University of Chicago Press.
Fuchs, M., Höpken, W., & Lexhagen, M. (2014). Big data analytics for knowledge generation in tourism
destinations–A case from Sweden.
Journal of Destination Marketing & Management
,
3
(4), 198-209.
Giddens, A., & Pierson, C. (1998).
Conversations with Anthony Giddens: Making sense of modernity
. Stanford
University Press.
Goldman, O. S., & Neubauer-Shani, M. (2017). Does international tourism affect transnational terrorism?.
Journal of
Travel Research
,
56
(4), 451-467.
Kantarci, K. (2007). Perceptions of foreign investors on the tourism market in central Asia including Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan.
Tourism
Management
,
28
(3),
820-829.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.05.012
Kantarci, K., Basaran, M. A., & Ozyurt, P. M. (2015). Challenges In Business And Economics: Growth,
Competitiveness And Innovations.
Kingsbury, P. T., & Brunn, S. D. (2004). Freud, tourism, and terror: Traversing the fantasies of post-September 11
travel magazines.
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing
,
15
(2-3), 39-61.
Korolev, A. (2007). Reconstruction of the sizes of spherical particles from their shadow images. Part I: Theoretical
considerations.
Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology
,
24
(3), 376-389.
Korstanje, M. E., & Clayton, A. (2012). Tourism and terrorism: conflicts and commonalities.
Worldwide Hospitality
and Tourism Themes
.
Kutluk, T., Ataş, E., Gültekin, M., Torode, J., & Sullivan, R. (2018). Cancer control in member countries of
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)—a status report & İstanbul declaration by the first ladies of
OIC.
Journal of cancer policy
,
18
, 25-32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpo.2018.10.003
Laderlah, S. A. (2015).
Concept of Islamic tourism in Malaysia
(Doctoral dissertation, Master Thesis), Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Malaysia).
Leach,
J.
(2003).
Improving
user
security
behaviour.
Computers
&
Security
,
22
(8),
685-692.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4048(03)00007-5
Luthe, T., & Wyss, R. (2014). Assessing and planning resilience in tourism.
Tourism Management
,
44
, 161-163.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.03.011
Masinde, A. (2016).
Challenges of implementing turnaround strategies at Kenya Railways corporation
(Doctoral
dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Mohamed, T. Z., & Alseyoufi, T. S. (2018). Evolution and impact of terrorism in the Middle East: implications for
Egyptian travel and tourism.
International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage
,
6
(3), 86-106.
Morakabati, Y., & Kapuściński, G. (2016). Personality, risk perception, benefit sought and terrorism
effect.
International Journal of Tourism Research
,
18
(5), 506-514.
Mowforth, M. M. I., & Munt, I. (1998). Tourism and sustainability New Tourism in the Third World, Londra–New
York.
Nassar, M. A., Mostafa, M. M., & Reisinger, Y. (2015). Factors influencing travel to Islamic destinations: an
empirical analysis of Kuwaiti nationals.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
.
Navruz-Zoda, B., & Navruz-Zoda, Z. (2016). The destination marketing development of religious tourism in
Uzbekistan.
International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage
,
4
(7), 9-20.
Nitsch, V., & Schumacher, D. (2004). Terrorism and international trade: an empirical investigation.
European
Journal of Political Economy
,
20
(2), 423-433.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2003.12.009
Paraskevas, A., & Arendell, B. (2007). A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism
destinations.
Tourism management
,
28
(6), 1560-1573.
Raza, S. A., & Jawaid, S. T. (2013). Terrorism and tourism: A conjunction and ramification in Pakistan.
Economic
Modelling
,
33
, 65-70.
Richter, L. K., & Waugh Jr, W. L. (1986). Terrorism and tourism as logical companions.
Tourism management
,
7
(4),
230-238.
Said, F., Ferdianto, J., & Hali, M. S. (2021). Aligning tourism area life cycle and product life cycle in avoiding
decline stage: Case study on West Nusa Tenggara Indonesia.
International Journal of Social Sciences
,
4
(1), 9-14.
https://doi.org/10.31295/ijss.v4n1.370
Seddighi, H. R., Nuttall, M. W., & Theocharous, A. L. (2001). Does cultural background of tourists influence the
destination choice? An empirical study with special reference to political instability.
Tourism management
,
22
(2),
181-191.
334
Slesman, L., Baharumshah, A. Z., & Ra'ees, W. (2015). Institutional infrastructure and economic growth in member
countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
Economic Modelling
,
51
, 214-226.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2015.08.008
Stafford, G., Yu, L., & Armoo, A. K. (2002). Crisis management and recovery how Washington, DC, hotels
responded to terrorism.
The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly
,
43
(5), 27-40.
Tanaś, S. (2013). The meaning of genocide and terror in cognitive tourism.
Turyzm
,
23
(1), 7-15.
Tsiakis, T., & Stephanides, G. (2005). The economic approach of information security.
Computers & security
,
24
(2),
105-108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2005.02.001
Wolff, K., & Larsen, S. (2014). Can terrorism make us feel safer? Risk perceptions and worries before and after the
July 22nd attacks.
Annals of Tourism Research
,
44
, 200-209.
Yap, G., & Saha, S. (2013). Do political instability, terrorism, and corruption have deterring effects on tourism
development even in the presence of UNESCO heritage? A cross-country panel estimate.
Tourism
Analysis
,
18
(5), 587-599.
Yaya, M. E. (2009). Terrorism and tourism: The case of Turkey.
Defence and Peace Economics
,
20
(6), 477-497.
