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ABSTRACT
The article provides information about the technique of making lithographic books, the history of used ornaments.
KEYWORDS
lithograph, manuscript, "rag paper", calligraphy, shirach, paper cut, chromolithography, calligrapher, muzahib,
lavwah, sahhaf.
INTRODUCTION
In the centuries-old cultural heritage of the peoples of
Central Asia, the art of calligraphy and reading books
occupies a special place. In Central Asia, bookkeeping
has been treated as an art since ancient times, and
special attention has been paid to it. Paper cutters,
calligraphers, muzahibs, lavvohs, painters and sahafs
participated in the process of writing. A paper cutter
made paper for books, a muzahib gilded book pages, a
plate decorated titles and tables, an artist painted on
book pages, a page maker made covers for books, and
a scribe copied texts in white. Noting that the work of
the mentioned professions was complicated and
laborious, it should be pointed out that among them
the work of calligraphers was very laborious and
responsible.
In her research, R. Mahmudova quoted A. Navoi's
assessment of secretaries as follows: "A secretary is
one who embroiders the words of poets on a page and
keeps a treasure of words... Just as a dot gives beauty
to a good page, a good letter and the dots on it give
beauty to a page of paper. A charm decorates the
speech and makes the speaker happy. It is clear that a
scribe whose writing is correct is acceptable to the
righteous. Whether the editor writes one byte or a
hundred bytes, it is acceptable if the editing is correct.
If the writing form is invisible, the reader and the
learned person will have difficulty in it. Cursed be the
one who, with an inappropriate dot, "destroys"
"habib" and "love" as "work", then he will face
disaster..."
Research Article
SCRIPTS AND THEIR PLACE IN PRINTING
Submission Date:
Sep 18, 2024,
Accepted Date:
Sep 23, 2024,
Published Date:
Sep 28, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/history-crjh-05-09-04
Abbosjon Mirzorakhimov
Rector National Institute Fine Arts And Design After Named Kamoliddin Behzod, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://masterjournals.
com/index.php/crjh
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
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Regarding the secretaries, A. Murodov gave extensive
information in his research and gave the following
information: "In the history of the Middle Ages and in
the cultural life of that time, the secretarial profession
was considered the most honorable and sacred task.
First of all, the fact that the secretary is literate .....
brings him (the secretary) to a higher position. Second,
the scribe learns the content of each book he copies as
he reads. As a result, a real writer takes a place among
the educated people of his time. Therefore, we should
understand the calligraphers who were engaged in
copying books in the Middle Ages in the Eastern
countries, not as a person performing the task of a
simple copyist, but each calligrapher as an educated,
enlightened, progressive intellectual and a great
cultural figure of his time .
Famous scribes tried to polish each letter of the Arabic
alphabet to make their husnikhat beautiful and
attractive. This led to the different writing of the Arabic
script, especially the letters in it. In addition, the
clumsiness of the Arabic script, the scribes' desire to
write in a short form in order to save paper and ink, also
led to the change of letters. That is why there is a big
difference between the manuscript and the
lithographic copies of the works copied by the scribes.
Even this difference can be seen between copies of the
manuscript. There are also differences between books
printed at presses in different cities. For example,
Kazan and Tashkent printed books differ from each
other in terms of writing. Books printed in Kazan are
characterized by the fact that they were printed more
typographically and there was no need for secretaries
in this process, while the books published in Tashkent
were printed using lithography, so they used the
services of secretaries. In general, it is difficult to
imagine manuscripts and lithographic works without
the services of scribes. In addition to expressing
meaning, the letters written by the scribes excited
people and gave them aesthetic pleasure.
The establishment of printing houses in Tashkent and
other cities, the beginning of the publication of various
books, caused an increase in the demand for
secretaries. This led to a certain growth and
development of the secretarial profession. In
particular, at the end of the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th century, it found its expression
in the emergence of a school of calligraphers directly
related to printing. During this period, the texts of
various petroglyphs were copied by more than 70
scribes.
Thus, according to the requirements of the time, the
last stage of the secretarial work coincided with the
end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th
century.
It is known that calligraphy has a long history in Central
Asia. Scribes have played an important role in the
development of literature for centuries, and the
products of their work have become a part of the
national culture. It is important that many artists and
calligraphers lived and worked in Uzbekistan. For
example, Babur, Muqimi, Ahmad Donish and others are
among them. This tradition in calligraphy was
continued during the lithographic period. For example,
Khislat and Sidqi were poets, calligraphers, and
publishers at the same time. During the analysis of
lithographic works, Abdulla Makhdum ibn Muhammad
Nasih, Abdulislam ibn Abdurahim, Abdulkadir Murad
Shoshi, Abdulhamid Qari, Qari Mirza Ahmed, Mulla
Ortiq, Sirojiddin Mahdum Mirzahid Khandaqliqi-Sidqi,
Shaislam ibn Shamuhammad,
Shahmurad ibn
Shone'mat, Mulla Yusufjan Mulla Zakirjan son, It
became known that calligraphers such as Mulla O'tab
ibn Rasul Muhammad, Mulla Ghafurjan, Ishaq Khan
Torakurgani, Mirza Hayrullo Mirza Khoqandi, Mirza
Nasir son, copied many works with the original letter.
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Although lithographic book copying originated in
Khiva, Tashkent calligraphers are at the forefront in
this regard.
During the period when the first printing presses
started working in Tashkent, the calligrapher who
made the first lithograph book was the son of
Muhammad Sayidkhoja Askarkhoja. Muhammad
Sayidkhoja, originally from Tashkent, was a hattot who
wrote skillfully in calligraphy and calligraphy, 1883 E. By
the order of Husanboev, the first sample of Tashkent
lithographic books was copied by Sofi Olloyar's "Sabot
ul-ojizin" and submitted to the "Lakhtin" printing
house for publication . Abdurahman Jami's book
"Favoidi Ziyaiya" was copied and published by him for
the first time in Tashkent. He has many other
lithographic books.
A famous calligrapher who lived and worked in the late
19th and early 20th century and one of the founders of
the school of calligraphy of that time was Muhammad
Shahmurad Shone'mat son (1850-1922), who was born
in Tashkent. "... This noble calligrapher, known not only
in Tashkent, but in all of Turkestan as Shahmurad the
secretary, showed Muqimiy a place in his house,
expressed that he was a fan of literature and a fellow
calligrapher, and said that he would spare no effort in
publishing Muqimiy's works. Sabir Abdullah writes .
Among the calligraphers, the son of Shaislam
Shahmuhammad, son of Khusniddin Khan Shamsiddin,
son of Mirzoahmad Rezamuhammad, son of Mirbarot
Mirvoris, son of O'tab Rasulmuhammad, son of
Sirojiddin Mahdum Sidqiy Mirzahid, Mulla Ortiq, son of
Abduqadir Murodi and others were the famous
students of Shahmurad Shonemat son. a letter of
approval and approval those who learned
The above calligraphers, while continuing the best
traditions of kitabat, also produced students
themselves. With this, the son of Shahmurad
Shone'mat created a calligraphy school in Tashkent in
the second half of the 11th century and the beginning
of the 20th century. Muhammad Shahmurad worked as
secretary from 1893 until 1913. Shahmurad the
secretary copied books on almost all fields. For
example, "Devoni Navoiy" (1893 "Kamensky"), 1888
"Breydenbach"), "Chihil Hadis" (1893 "Kamensky"),
"Mufrodot" (1898 Tashkent), "Mufrodot mar' risolai
khat nastaliq Mir Ali " (Tashkent, 1899), "Khamsa"
(1904, "Portsev"), "Devoni Khvaydo" (1903, "Ilin"),
"Kulliyot Jami and Masnavi Khazin, Yusuf and Zulayho"
(1905, Tashkent), Gulkhani's "Zarbulmasal ”i (1908
"Portsev"), Jami's book "Etigodnoma (poem)"
(Tashkent 1909), the work "Mufrodot ma' murkobot
sarkhat va essay" (Tashkent 1911), "Khazinat ul-hikmat"
about Ibn Sina ( "Portsev" in 1912), "Mufrodot ma'
murkabot" (Tashkent in 1913) and many other works
are among them.
Muhammad Shahmurad was engaged in publishing as
well as copying books on lithographs. In particular, he
was the publisher and secretary of the book "Farzi ain
forsi va turkiy" published in Tashkent in 1895 , "Kulliyoti
Fuzuli" published in 1893 .
Muhammad Shahmurad was the son of one of the
scribe's students, Mirzoahmad Rezamuhammad, who
skillfully copied the naskh and nastaq letters.
Mirzoahmad Rezamuhammad worked as secretary
from 1901 to 1914. He lithographed more than 10 books.
He mainly copied divans, bayozs and folk books.
Including "Devoni Muqimiy" (1901 "Portsev"), "Tuhfai
Khislat" (1914 "Ghulomiya"), "Savgoti Khislat" (1914
"Portsev", "Ghulomiya"), "Savgoti Shavkat" (1914 "
Ghulomiya"), "Zufunun" (1904 "Ilin"), "Jangnomai
Amir Temuri Kuragony" (1910 "Ilin"), "Duzd and Qazi"
(1914 "Portsev"), "Devoni Majzub" (1911 " Ghulamiya"),
"Mavludalnabi" (1908 "Ilin") and other works were
copied by Mirzoahmad Rezamuhammad in a nastalig
letter.
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Calligrapher Shaislam Shomuhammad (1882-1941) was
one of the students of Shahmurad Domla. He first
studied at a madrasa in Beshyogoch, then in Bukhara.
While studying in Tashkent, he learned calligraphy
from Shahmurad the calligrapher.
Around 1914-1915, when Shoislam Shomuhammad
returned from Bukhara education, he taught at the
Holmuhammadboy madrasa in Beshyogoch. He
continued his work as a secretary from 1904 to 1914. He
copied about 10 divans mainly to Tashkent printing
houses. In particular, Alisher Navoi's "Devon" ("Ilin"),
"Devon Khuwaydo" (1904 "Ilin"), "Devon Amir
Umarkhan" (1905 "Portsev"), "Ajayib al-hikayat"
translated from Arabic and Persian -manzuma ("Ilin" in
1907), "Farzi ain Farsi va Turki" (Tashkent, 1914) and
others are among the works copied by Shoislam the
writer.
Muhammad Azim Muznib son of Rizamuhammad was
one of the calligraphers from Tashkent, he copied
books in naskh and nastaliq letters. In 1912, he wrote a
pamphlet in Uzbek called "Miroti Talim", i.e. "Mirror of
Education", containing the rules of khusnikhat , in
which he explained the rules of copying and writing .
Other books copied are not known.
Mulla O'tab ibn Rasulmuhammad copied books in 1907-
1913. One of the great calligraphers from Tashkent. In
1907, he published the first book "Bayozi Mulla O'tab",
which he copied. During the years 1907-1915, he copied
more than 20 books on various topics for lithographs.
he copied and published a collection of poems under
his name. Mulla O'tab "Travel" (1907 "Ilin"), "Tuhfat ul-
Obidin" (1910 "Ghulomiya"), "Musonoma" (1911
"Ghulomiya"),
"Qissai
mushu
gurba"
(1911
"Ghulomiya") , "Adabiddin" (1911 "Ghulomiya"),
"Devony Qari" (1911 "Ghulomiya"), "Roman" (1911
"Ghulomiya"), "The master of the epic Abomuslim"
(1912 "Ghulomiya" in collaboration with Mulla Artik ),
"Devoni Vasliy" (1912 "Portsev"), "Shakaristan" (1912),
"Malikai Dilorom" (1913 "Ghulomiya"), Saiqali's
"Hurliqo" (1913 "Ghulomiya"), "Devoni Huvaido" ( 1914
"Turk, courier"), "Devony Navoiy" (1915 "Ghulomiya")
and other similar works were lithographed. Mulla
O'tab died in 1913.
The son of Sirojiddin Mahdum Mirzahid-Sidqiy
Khandaqliqi (1884-1932, Khandaqliqi village in present-
day Bostanlik district) was a student of Muhammed
Shahmurad calligrapher, and Mirzahoshim Khojandi in
the arts of calligraphy, calligraphy, suls khati and tazhib
. He wrote poems under the pseudonyms Sidqi,
Shevan, Shavkat. Sirojiddin Mahdum worked as
secretary from 1906 to 1917. He copied about 20 works
in all fields. He also worked as a translator, and
translated the books he translated into lithographs. In
1915, Sidki published his poems under the name
"Savgoti Shavkat". In addition, his collection of poems
"Bazmi Ishrat" was published. As a Sidqi calligrapher,
Navoi's "Chihil Hadis" (1906), "Qissai Mushu Gurba"
(1908 "Portsev"), "Kulliyoti Farhad .va Shirin" (1908
Tashkent), "Barzuyi Sher" (1911 Tashkent), "Bahrom
and Gulandom ("Saikaliy, Hisari-Sabir")" (1911
"Ghulomiya"), "Mufrodot ma' murkobot sarkhat va
essay" (1911 Tashkent), "Khumayilnoma and creed"
(1910 Tashkent), "Toza hurriyat" ” (1917), “Tazkirai
Imam Azam” (1914 “Turk, Courier”), “Zarbulmasal”
(1908 “Portsev”), “Kissai Tamim sahoba” (1912
“Portsev”), “Kissai Prince Bahram and Malikai
Gulandom" ("Ghulomiya" in 1911), "Bayozi muhallo"
("Ghulomiya" in 1911), "Sipari gham" ("Ghulomiya" in
1911) and other works. In addition to being a poet and
calligrapher, Sidqi was also a master translator, he
published two volumes of the famous Arabic fairy tale
"One Thousand Nights", "Qissai Shahzoda Bahrom",
"Sipari gham" and other works translated from Arabic
and Persian into Uzbek. In 1917, Sidkiy self-edited and
published works such as "Toza Hurriyat", "Russian
Revolution", "Heroes of the Motherland".
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Abdulkadir Muradov in 1893 in Tashkent born He is
famous calligrapher Shahmurad from the secretary
husnikhat , Persian language and literature learned
1907-1917 years between Abdul Qasim in the madrasah
read He learned Arabic from Muhammad ibn Sa'id
learning with together calligraphy profession with too
engaged in This in between he many works from the
Arabic language to Uzbek translation did Including Ibn
Sina's in 1958 many p roof " Tib Laws " from volumes 1,
2, 3 and Egypt writer M. Taimur from stories did
translations these are including Of these except A.
Muradov his own many p yearly scientific studies on
the basis of 1967 " Mid in Asia calligraphy from the
history of " candidacy dissertation protection did From
1912 to 1917, he copied about 20 books for lithographs.
His works copied as a calligrapher include "Devony
Muqimi" (1912 "Ghulomiya"), "Fawz un-najot"
("Ghulomiya"), "Tilsim zarrin" ("Asia"), "Turma's
memory", "Mavlud an-nabi". (1912 "Portsev"),
"Khazinat ul-hikmat" (1913), "Devony Hafiz" (1913),
"Hafdah Ghazat" (1914) Navoi's "Mezon ul-Avzon",
"Muhokamat ul-lughatayn" and "Majolis" un-nafois"
(1947,1948), "Devoni Khafiz" (1958), "Devoni Kamal
Khojandi" (1961) and other works can be shown.
Ishaqkhan Toraqorgani is an educator, poet,
calligrapher and printing press owner. Literary
nickname is Ibrat. He was born in 1862 in the present
Toraqorgon district near the city of Namangan. In 1901,
Ishaqkhan tora V. M. He copied and published his first
book "Lug'ati al-sitta" at the Ilin printing house. In
1909, he founded the Ishoqiya lithography in
Namangan. He published a work called "Jami ul-
Khutut" in his printing house. This work shows not only
that he was an excellent calligrapher, but also a scholar
of linguists.
Mirzo Hayrullo Mirzo Khoqandi, son of Mirzo Nasir, is
an artistic calligrapher and talented poet of Kokan.
Mirza was well versed in reading and copying tools. In
the 1910s, Mirzo Khairullo copied his works such as
"Devony Mirzo", "Bayaz majmuai ash'or", "Gulshani
Mirzo". H. Hakimzoda's "Pink Flower", "Yellow
Flower", "Perfume Flower" and other pamphlets were
copied and published by Mirzo Haydar. these works are
stored in the Kokan Literary Museum.
The son of Almai Qari Fazlullah Mirjalal is one of the
famous poets and calligraphers belonging to the
second half of the 19th century. Under the pseudonym
Almai, he wrote poems in Uzbek, Persian, and Arabic,
and worked as a translator. His in the translation "Kalila
and Dimna " one how many times in lithographs
publication done
Muhammad Elegant From Tashkent a poet and
calligrapher To the lithograph copied books there is In
1901 in lithography publication Arabic, Persian, Uzbek
to " Khamsa " by Alisher Navoi in their languages
review writing gave Soil and responsible Limaromil in
charge wassoil ”n i from Arabic to Persian translation
by doing copied . This book Ghulam Messenger by in
1915 publication done
Another of the scribes who participated in the transfer
of lithographic works was Abdullah Mahdum
Muhammad Nasih son, who was born in 1899 in
Tashkent. One of the famous calligraphers, Sirojiddin
Mahdum, learns calligraphy from Sidqi Khandaqli.
Najmuddin Khoja. Kokan calligrapher To Tashkent
come Sincerely to students lesson gave Nastaliq in the
letter copied many books in petroglyphs publication
done
Muhammad Usman Secretary Tashkent in 1856 in the
city of Namangan born in Bukhara in the madrasa study
received To Tashkent come to lithographs books
copied . " Season ul-Khitab ", by Masudi work and head
books Usman secretary by lithograph for moved
publication done
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Snow Abdumannan Abdulvah ob son From Tashkent
calligrapher During the years 1902-1906, he copied
about five books. Mainly copied by Devon and Bayoz.
He copied many books on lithographs. Among other
things, he was the author of lithographic books such as
"Majmaut ash Shuaro i (Umarkhani)" (1902 Ilin printing
house), "Guldastai rayohin (together with Mufrodot)"
(1906 Tashkent).
scribes as Yusufjan Zakirjan son, Husniddin Khan
Shahmurad, Basitkhan Zahidkhan son, Yoldosh
Jumavoy son, Muhammad Temir Mirzamuhammad
son, Abu Qadir Khoqandi, Mirza Ahmad bin Mirza
Karim, Mulla Khadi Burdi Tashkandi, Husayn ibn
Sibgatullah, etc. 20 га, Mulla Ortuq (more than 10
works), Mulla Yusufjan son of Mulla Zakirjan ( 20
гаrecent works) and many other scribes were active.
Most of the considered scribes worked in Tashkent.
Thus, the above-mentioned writers who lived and
worked in the late 19th century and early 20th century
made their proper contribution to conveying the
masterpieces of culture to the people. The historical
traditions of scribes were preserved in lithographic
books, and they were revealed with new aspects. The
style of master-apprentice, which has continued for
centuries in calligraphy, gained importance in this
period as well. Scribes tried to copy the books
published in printing presses, to reflect the traditions
of manuscript books in lithographic books. As a result,
unique works were created.
REFERENCES
1.
A. Muradov. From the history of calligraphy in
Central Asia. - T., 1967. - B. 207.
2.
Bobokhanov A. From the history of Uzbek
printing.
–
T: 1979. Literature and art, B.145.
3.
Sabir Abdullah. Maulana Muqimi. - T., 1965. -
B.403.
