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THE LIFE AND ACTIVITY OF SHEIKH MUHAMMAD ABDO, THE
CREATOR OF ARAB-MUSLIM THOUGHT OF THE 20TH CENTURY
Sharafutdinova Rukhsora
2nd stage graduate student of Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies
E.M.Izzetova
Scientific leader: Ph.D., Professor
Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13898215
ABSTRACT
The purpose of writing this article is a holistic study of the life and
scientific work of the Islamic reformer and modernist Sheikh Muhammad Abdo.
To substantiate the thesis that Muhammad Abdo’s modernism is a synthesis of
Islam and modern thought. The socio-philosophical works of the thinker were
aimed at uniting civilizations and overcoming contradictions and conflicts. To
show that Muhammad Abdo’s activities were multifaceted, he especially clearly
showed his talent in the educational sphere, in reforming the system of higher
religious education and journalism.
Keywords: Islamic reformism, Islamic modernism, "Risalat at-tawhid", "Al-Urwa
al-wusqa", al-Azhar, Muslims and Christians, the Qur'an, logic, rhetoric,
monotheism, pedagogy.
INTRODUCTION
After gaining independence, Uzbekistan established economic and cultural
relations with all the countries of the world, the Far East, India, Pakistan, Arab
countries, Iran, Turkey and other countries on the basis of mutual friendship and
beneficial cooperation, and this relations are developing more and more.
Interest in the culture, spirituality, and socio-philosophical thinking of the
peoples of the East is undoubtedly growing. The reason for this is that due to
the common history of the peoples of the Arab East and Central Asia, there is a
closeness and harmony in their philosophical, religious-ethical and spiritual
heritage.
Sh. M. Mirziyoyev, in his speech at the ceremony dedicated to the 32nd
anniversary of the independence of the Republic of Uzbekistan, noted: we will
raise beneficial cooperation relations to a new level."
In this article, the flow of the Arab Enlightenment, which took a place in the
socio-philosophical thinking of the Arab peoples at the end of the 19th century
and the beginning of the 20th century, as well as the work and life of Muhammad
Abdo in the light of enlightenment, are widely covered.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Many works of Western and Eastern philosophers, historians, orientalists are
devoted to the life and work of M. Abdo. The most famous of them are the
studies of Zugfried Hunz, Charles Adams, Mahmoud Abbas al-Akkad, Rashid
Rida, Shawki Zaif, Muhammad Ammar, Ahmad Amin, Mustafa Labib and others.
In particular, although Mahmoud Abbas al-Akkad analyzed the life and work of
M. Abdo, little attention was paid to the thinker's reformist ideas in his work.
The famous researcher Rashid Rida said in his three-volume work "Ta'rih al-
ustad al-imam ash-shaikh Muhammad Abdo" ("The biography of Muhammad
Abdo"): "Abdo is considered a source of philosophical thought in Egypt." The
first volume of this work, which describes the detailed history of the life of
Muhammad Abdo and Jamaluddin Afghani, is of particular interest within the
framework of the specified topic. The largest research work on Muhammad
Abdo can be considered as "al-Amal-ul-komilati li-l-imam Muhammad Abdo"
("The complete biography of Muhammad Abdo"), this work belongs to the pen of
M. Ammar. Osmanmin devoted his research entitled "Renaissance in Egypt" to
M. Abdo's life as the founder of his school. Muhammad Abdo and his school, the
history of Muslim philosophy. M. T. Stepanyants and L. R. devoted small editions
to this reformer. Polonskaya. B.S. Omondulloyev tried to systematically study
the main stages of M. Abdo's life and creative activity. Some aspects of this
problem were considered by E. J. Babayeva.
The above studies served as a methodological basis for determining the main
stages of M. Abdo's life and the formation of his religious and philosophical
views. An analysis of Muhammad Abdo's life activity and his religious-
philosophical heritage was carried out. In the process of analyzing this article,
logicality, historicity, consistency and objectivity, and philosophical hermeneutic
methods of scientific knowledge were widely used.
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
Muhammad Abdo ibn Hasan Khairullah was born in 1849 in the village of
Mahalla Nasr, near the city of Damanhour, Bukhara province, Egypt. He is
known as an Egyptian Islamic jurist, religious scholar and liberal reformer, one
of the main founders of Islamic modernism, and the Grand Mufti of Egypt . One
of the early medieval Islamic Mu'tazili scholars, sometimes seen as an exponent
of the neo-Mu'tazilism movement. According to some accounts, Abdo was a
Freemason and had close ties to the Baha'i faith . His mother was from the tribe
of Bonu Uday, and his father was from the Turkmen military family who served
during Salah ad-Din Ayyubid period (XII century). That's why Abdo is
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sometimes called "al-Turkamani". His parents were self-sufficient farmers. He
did not attend primary school, but studied at home. Then his father sent him to
the Sufi Said Badawi College near the Ahmadiyya Mosque. Before that, Abdo had
completed the entire Qur'an. Abdo dropped out after a year because the college
curriculum consisted only of memorizing the text of the Qur'an and its
commentary. Even his father's strong disapproval cannot stop him.
Sufi shaykh Shauqi Darvish Khidr Muhammad Abdo had a special place in his
life. When Shauqi Darvish went to Tripolitania on business in his youth, he
joined the ash-Shaziliya sect. The conversations of Shauqi Darvish, who was
given to Sufism, about religion, took place in the heart of the young Muhammad,
and he fell into a spiritual frenzy, became obsessed with Sufism, and lived as a
dervish in a Sufi dress. Sheikh Darvish himself, who is far from fanaticism, helps
to bring him back to life, proves the importance of reading and explains the
shortcomings in the development of Islamic jurisprudence to the best of his
knowledge. Muhammad Abdo later recalled: "I found a teacher in the person of
the sheikh, he guided me and gave me advice so that I could achieve what my
heart desires... He freed me from the shackles of ignorance and directed me to
the open field of knowledge, showing the way to spiritual union with God, freed
from blind imitation" . Having come out of a mental crisis, Muhammad Abdo
returned to college with the advice of the sheikh and continued to diligently
study Islamic sciences. Soon after that, he himself became a sheikh to his friends
and students.
In 1865, he graduated from the Ahmadiyya College and entered the famous al-
Azhar University. Although Al-Azhar was famous, its curriculum was limited to
fiqh, hadith, tafsir, Arabic, and public speaking. Because mathematics,
geography, biology, chemistry and other subjects were not included, education
was not fully meeting the requirements of the time. Muhammad Abdo was not
satisfied with the religious education system at Al-Azhar. Later, he wrote:
"Studying Arabic books in the Al-Azhar style damaged my mind. I tried to clear
my mind for several years, but I never succeeded."
Abdo studied at Al-Azhar for 12 years and received a doctorate in Islamic
theology and law in 1877. But without worldly knowledge, he felt ignorant. He
always remembered Darvish's words that a real scientist should be literate in all
aspects. From 1877, Abdo taught logic and belief at Al-Azhar, the history of
Arabic language and literature at the "School of Languages", and history at the
new educational institution "Dar ul-Ulum" opened by Ali Mubarak. At "Dar ul-
Ulum" they tried to provide education based on modern requirements.
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When giving a lecture on Ibn Khaldun's work "Introduction", he tries to connect
the thinker's philosophical and sociological views with the times. At that time,
Abdo met Hasan Tawil, a mathematician, philosopher and theologian, who also
understood politics well. The lectures of Sheikh Tawil, who is courageous and
fearlessly speaks the truth to the face of the ruler, imbued with the ideas of
restoring the Muslim culture, were distinguished by their depth of thought.
These things penetrated into Abdo's heart and mind and encouraged his spirited
nature to pursue intellectual pursuits. It was in this mood that he met Jamal ad-
Din al-Afghani.
While teaching at al-Azhar, Abdo wrote articles for the Egyptian periodical press,
mostly al-Ahram. Riyad Pasha led the government in Egypt when Taufiq was the
ruler. He founded the newspaper "Al-waqai al-misriy" ("Events of Egypt"),
which was the herald of his intentions to implement the reform. He handed over
the post of editor-in-chief to Muhammad Abdo, and he turned the ordinary
newspaper into a real herald of social reform and the call of Islam.
Abdo plunges into scientific and pedagogical creativity. He teaches monotheism,
logic, rhetoric, history and law in several mosques in Beirut, then in the "as-
Sultaniya" school, and reforms the curriculum. His articles are published in the
Beirut newspaper "Samarat al-Funun" ("Fruits of Science").
In 1889, Abdo returned to Egypt, which fell under British control. The scholar
further acknowledges the importance of reforming Islamic institutions such as
al-Azhar University, the Ministry of Endowments, and Sharia courts. He sends
his reform project to Lord Cromer, the Governor-General, who is the actual ruler
of Egypt. Sheikh Muhammad Abdo intended to become the rector of Dar ul-
Ulum. But the British and the Hadid had different plans. He was appointed as a
judge of the people's court in Bankh, az-Zakazik, and then in Abidin. In 1895, he
became a consultant of the appeals court. He paid special attention to reforms at
al-Azhar, increasing student scholarships, improving their lives, using modern
teaching methods, and including secular sciences in the educational program.
Muhammad Abdo took an active part in "al-Ahram", "al-Muqtataf" and other
newspapers with his articles. In 1898, he founded the magazine "Al-Manar"
("Lighthouse") with the intention of spreading ideas in the spirit of Islamic
reformism. His close student, the Lebanese lawyer Rashid Rida (1865-1935),
was appointed editor. In the pages of "Al-Manar" issues of theology and Sharia
were covered in the spirit of Islamic reformism, articles on the history of Arabs,
Arabic language and literature, and excerpts from literary works were
published. The task of the magazine was to spread the original Islamic ideas, to
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prove its compatibility with modern scientific and social thinking, to educate
Muslims in the spirit of religious tolerance, and to spread enlightenment among
the masses.
In 1889, Muhammad Abdo was appointed Mufti of Egypt, in the same year he
became a member of the Egyptian Legislative Council and held these positions
until the end of his life. Muhammad Abdo agreed with the British, gave up the
political struggle, and decided to implement his own reforms.
During his interest in Sufism (1874), Muhammad Abdo wrote the work "Risalat
al-Waridat" ("Treatise on Mystical Inspiration"), in which he described the
teachings of the famous Sufism theorist Muhyiddin al-Arabi. At that time, the
teachings of Sufism, with its spiritual aspect, requirements for achieving
spiritual perfection, having inner faith, and a critical view of official fanaticism,
captivated Muhammad Abdoni. He later renounced this teaching. His desire to
interpret the Qur'an in a rationalist spirit was expressed in the five-volume
authoritative Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Hakim. The author could not finish this
interpretation, it was continued by his student Rashid Rida.
Abdo's other major work, Risalat al-Tawhid (Treatise on Monotheism), was
published in 1897. It describes the religious and philosophical views of the
thinker. This work was compiled from the lectures delivered in 1885 at the al-
Sultaniya madrasa. Its text was recorded by his brother Hammuda Bey Abdo. In
1908, the second edition of Risalat al-Tawhid was published with additions and
corrections by Rashid Rida. The work was published in French in 1925 and in
English in 1966. The English edition is called The Theology of Unite .
During his scientific and pedagogical activities, he published the works "Tafsirs
on the course of rhetoric" and "Badi az-Zamon al-Hamadani". His articles were
published in "Al-urwa al-vusqa", "Al-Ahram", "Al-Muqtataf" newspapers, "al-
Manar" magazine and other publications. Most of these works were devoted to
religious reformation, socio-political and philosophical issues. Abdo's legacy
consists of about 30 works, many of which have been lost .
Abduh was sympathetic to Sufism and al-Ghazali cosmology, despite strongly
condemning excessive veneration of saints. He explained the philosophical and
esoteric Sufi traditions of Islam in the treatise "Risolat al-voridat fi Sirr at-
Tajalliyat" ("Treatise on Sufi Inspirations from the Secrets of Revelation"), which
expressed the philosophical and mystical teachings of his teacher Jamal.
Religion embodies the spiritual ideas of medieval Sufi saints and philosophers
such as al-Afghani, Ibn Arabi and Ibn Sina. The language Abdullah al-Afghani
used to describe his teachings was based on a distinctly Sufi framework that
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represented Ishraqi philosophy. The treatise considered the issues of
substantiating philosophical arguments for the existence and nature of God, the
development of Sufi cosmology, and the development of rationalist concepts of
prophecy. ʿAbduh followed the cosmological doctrine of "Wahdat ul-Wujud"
developed by Sufi Islamic philosophers, according to which God and his creation
are co-existent and co-eternal . Abduh defended the teachings of Sufi
philosopher and saint Ibn Arabi, Suhrawardi and others, "Wahdat ul-Wujud" and
wrote:
... we believe: There is no existence and quality other than His existence. It exists
and nothing else exists. The first commanders of the believers (al-umaro'ul-
awwalun), may Allah be pleased with them, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali,
may Allah be pleased with them, said: "You have never seen Allah in front of you,
behind you and inside you. You don't feel anything. ''
One of the researchers of Muhammad Abdo's legacy, the great scientist Usman
Amin published the work "Imam Muhammad Abdo, the creator of Egyptian
thought" ("Raid al-misriy al-imam Muhammad Abdo") in Cairo in 1955. In it, the
author analyzed Abdo's religious-philosophical, socio-political views, quoted
excerpts from his works that Muslims were suffering from ignorance of their
religion and the tyranny of unjust rulers. Abdo died of renal cell carcinoma on
July 11, 1905 in Alexandria.
CONCLUSION
Today, the analysis of the philosophical views of Eastern philosophers is one of
the urgent issues. At the same time, the importance of analyzing Muhammad
Abdo's philosophical views and conveying them to the younger generation is
endless.
As a conclusion to this article, I say that Muhammad Abdo, an Islamic reformer
and Arab modernist, was considered a person who had an important influence
on our society, culture, religion and life in general, not only in the 20th century,
but also in the current 19th century. I think that it is not wrong to take
Muhammad Abdo's religious-philosophical ideas as our basis even today. As
mentioned in this article, rationalism, modernism, reformism, enlightenment
views occupied the main place in the thinker's ideas. In this regard, I believe
that all the points made about Muhammad Abdo are clear and correct. Through
this Islamic scholar and his mature works, we can witness that our people were
attracted to independence and enlightenment in their lives. It should be
recognized that this person was not just a teacher, but a creator of real Arab-
Muslim thinking.
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