European International Journal of Pedagogics
196
https://eipublication.com/index.php/eijp
TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
196-199
DOI
3
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
25 March 2025
ACCEPTED
21 April 2025
PUBLISHED
23 May 2025
VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue05 2025
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Neurobiological Nature of
Speech Problem and
Experimental Analysis
Khamraeva Khullar Naimovna
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor of Tashkent
University of Economics and Pedagogy, Uzbekistan
Abstract:
Dyslexia is a specific reading disorder
characterized by difficulties in accurate and fluent word
recognition, as well as in decoding and spelling skills,
and is a significant problem in education worldwide. The
article emphasizes the need to take into account
sociocultural factors and calls for international
exchange of experience to improve the identification
and support of individuals with dyslexia worldwide.
Keywords:
Dyslexia, diagnosis, diagnostic tests,
assessment methods, bilingualism and multilingualism.
Introduction:
Regardless of cultural and linguistic
boundaries, dyslexia affects a significant percentage of
the population of children and adults, seriously affecting
their academic performance, social adaptation and
future life opportunities. Statistics from different
countries show that the prevalence of this
neurobiological condition is high, ranging from 5% to
17% of the population, according to various estimates.
These figures highlight that dyslexia is not only an
individual problem, but also a global challenge that
requires serious attention from educators, researchers,
policymakers and society as a whole. Lack of timely
diagnosis and adequate support can lead to frustration,
low self-esteem, mental health problems and limited
educational and professional trajectories for millions of
people worldwide (1).
Thus, a comprehensive international study and
comparative analysis of existing dyslexia diagnostic
methods is a necessary step towards developing more
effective and universal strategies for identifying and
supporting individuals with this common reading
disorder.
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The fundamental understanding of dyslexia as a
neurobiological and often heritable disorder has
provided the basis for many studies aimed at
identifying its cognitive and linguistic markers. Despite
the general definition, the phenotypic manifestation of
dyslexia can vary depending on the specific
characteristics of the language. For example, in
languages with transparent orthographies, where
there is an unambiguous correspondence between
letters and sounds (such as Finnish or Italian),
difficulties may mainly manifest themselves in reading
speed and fluency. In languages with opaque
orthographies, where the relationships between
letters and sounds are complex and unclear (such as
English or French), decoding and spelling errors may
predominate.
These linguistic differences directly affect which
aspects of language skills are assessed in the diagnostic
process. Tests developed to detect dyslexia in one
language may be invalid or ineffective when used in
another language environment. In addition, cultural
norms and expectations regarding reading and writing
achievement may also influence how reading
difficulties are recognized and interpreted. In this
regard, studying the different methods of diagnosing
dyslexia in a global context allows us to identify
potential universal indicators and best practices that
can be adapted to different linguistic and cultural
environments, while
also
identifying
existing
differences. Understanding these nuances is crucial to
ensuring that everyone who needs help, regardless of
their background or language of instruction, receives a
fair and timely diagnosis (2, 56).
A brief overview of the concept of dyslexia and its
impact on education and society. Dyslexia is a
neurobiological disorder characterized by persistent
difficulties in reading, writing, and spelling, despite
adequate intellectual ability and adequate educational
conditions. At its core, dyslexia is associated with a
deficit in phonological processing - the ability to
recognize and manipulate speech sounds. This makes
it difficult to establish associations between sounds
and letters (graphemes), which are extremely
important for acquiring reading and writing skills. It is
worth noting that dyslexia is not a consequence of a
lack of motivation, vision, or hearing problems, but
rather a specific feature of cognitive development.
The impact of dyslexia extends far beyond academic
achievement. In terms of education, children and
adults with dyslexia may experience significant
difficulties in mastering a curriculum that requires the
active use of reading and writing. This can lead to a
decrease in mastery of various subjects, a loss of
interest in reading, the development of a sense of
inferiority, and ultimately a limitation of educational
opportunities. Undiagnosed and uncompensated
dyslexia can be a serious obstacle to higher education
and professional growth.
The impact of dyslexia on the social side is also quite
significant. Difficulties in reading and writing can make
it difficult to communicate in everyday life, understand
instructions, complete documents, and participate in
various social activities that require literacy. The
frustration, shame, and low self-esteem that often
accompany undiagnosed dyslexia can negatively affect
interpersonal relationships, social adjustment, and
overall quality of life. In adulthood, dyslexia can hinder
professional growth and limit opportunities for full
participation in society.
Thus, dyslexia is not only a learning problem, but also a
factor that has a profound and multifaceted impact on
the trajectories of a person’s educationa
l and social
development. Timely and accurate diagnosis, taking into
account linguistic and cultural characteristics, plays an
important role in providing the necessary support to
people with dyslexia and creating conditions for them to
fully realize their potential (5, 98).
The main methods of diagnosing dyslexia in different
countries. North America (USA and Canada). In the USA
and Canada, the diagnosis of dyslexia is usually carried
out within the school system or by private specialists
(psychologists, neuropsychologists, speech therapists).
Diagnostic methods are characterized by several key
features:
Emphasis on psychometric assessment
: The diagnostic
process often involves standardized tests that assess a
variety of cognitive and language skills known to be
associated with dyslexia. These include:
Reading skills
: Reading accuracy of individual words and
text, reading fluency (speed and expressiveness), and
reading comprehension. Tests such as the Woodcock-
Johnson IV Tests of Achievement, the Wechsler
Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-III), and the Test of
Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) are used.
Phonological skills
: Phonological awareness (the ability
to recognize and manipulate speech sounds),
phonological memory (the ability to store and
reproduce sound information), and phonological access
speed (the speed at which phonological information is
retrieved from long-term memory) are assessed.
Examples include the Comprehensive Test of
Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2). The ability to write
individual words and texts, as well as knowledge of
spelling rules, is assessed.
Intellectual abilities
: Although dyslexia is not associated
with low intelligence, general intellectual level is often
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European International Journal of Pedagogics
assessed (for example, using the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children - WISC or Woodcock-Johnson IV
Tests of Cognitive Abilities) to exclude intellectual
disability as the main cause of reading difficulties. The
difference between intellectual abilities and reading
and writing achievement is one of the diagnostic
criteria.
Response to Intervention (RTI) model
: In recent
decades, the Response to Intervention (RTI) model has
become widespread in the United States and, to a
lesser extent, in Canada. RTI is a multi-level approach
to early identification and support for students with
reading difficulties, including those at risk for
developing dyslexia. Within the framework of RTI, the
learning of all students is regularly monitored,
scientifically
based
teaching
methods
and
interventions are provided at varying levels of
intensity, and the student's response to this
intervention is assessed. Lack of adequate progress
despite intensive intervention may be an indicator of
possible dyslexia and a basis for further in-depth
diagnosis.
Role of professional organizations
: Organizations such
as the International Dyslexia Association (IDA) play an
important role in developing and disseminating
evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis
and treatment of dyslexia. Their definitions and criteria
are often used as a reference by professionals.
Legislation and educational standards: In the United
States, federal legislation, such as the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), guarantees the right
of children with dyslexia to receive special education
and related services. This legislation also affects
diagnostic procedures and the identification of
educational needs. In Canada, educational standards
and diagnostic methods may vary by province. In
general, the diagnosis of dyslexia in North America is
characterized by a comprehensive approach based on
the use of standardized testing of cognitive and
language skills, combined with an assessment of
response to educational intervention.
Europe (UK, Germany, France, Scandinavian
countries).
The methods of diagnosing dyslexia in
Europe show considerable diversity, reflecting
linguistic differences between languages, the
specificities of national education systems and
historical traditions in special education.
UK: Strong emphasis on phonological awareness: In
the UK, the diagnosis of dyslexia has traditionally
placed a strong emphasis on the assessment of
phonological skills, such as phonemic segmentation,
blending, sound manipulation and phonological
memory. Deficits in these areas are considered to be a
key factor underlying dyslexia. Screening tests are often
used in schools to identify children at risk of developing
dyslexia early. These tests can assess the basic skills of
reading, writing and phonological abilities. Diagnosis is
usually
carried
out
by
qualified
educational
psychologists or dyslexia specialists, who use a
comprehensive approach that includes history taking,
observation of learning and results from standardised
tests. In the UK, the broader term "Specific Learning
Difficulties" (SpLD) is often used, which includes
dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia. The diagnostic
process aims to differentiate between these conditions
and identify the specific needs of the learner.
Organisations such as the British Dyslexia Association
(BDA) play an important role in developing diagnostic
guidelines and standards.
Germany: Focus on linguistic analysis of errors: In
Germany, diagnosis often involves a detailed analysis of
reading and writing errors, identifying specific patterns
such as phonics errors, letter omissions or additions.
There are a number of standardized tests in German
that assess various aspects of reading, writing,
phonological skills, and visual-spatial abilities. The
diagnosis is usually carried out by school psychologists
in collaboration with teachers and special educators. In
some cases, a doctor's opinion (e.g. a pediatrician or
child psychiatrist) may be required to confirm the
diagnosis and determine the need for medical
intervention or further testing.
France: Influence of the specific features of the French
language: Although French has a relatively transparent
orthography, there are certain difficulties with
pronunciation and grammatical rules. The diagnosis
takes these linguistic features into account. In addition
to reading accuracy, great attention is paid to reading
speed and comprehension of the text read. In France,
speech therapists play an important role in the diagnosis
and correction of dyslexia and other speech and
language disorders. They conduct a comprehensive
examination of language and cognitive skills. Diagnosis
is often made in collaboration between school doctors,
psychologists, and speech therapists.
Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark,
Finland, Iceland): High level of awareness and support:
Scandinavian countries have a high level of awareness
of dyslexia and a well-developed system of support for
students with special educational needs. There is a
strong emphasis on early identification of children at
risk of developing dyslexia through screening programs
in preschool and primary schools. Standardized tests
have been developed taking into account the specific
features of the orthography and phonetics of the
Scandinavian languages. For example, in Finnish, which
has a very transparent orthography, diagnosis can focus
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European International Journal of Pedagogics
on reading speed and decoding automation. Diagnosis
is often carried out by a team of specialists consisting
of teachers, special educators, school psychologists
and speech therapists. In Scandinavian countries,
there is a strong desire to create an inclusive
educational environment where students with dyslexia
receive the necessary support within the regular
classroom, rather than in special institutions.
In general, the methods of diagnosing dyslexia in
Europe are characterized by diversity, which is related
to linguistic and cultural factors. However, the general
trend is towards early identification, the use of
standardized
assessments
and
interdisciplinary
collaboration of specialists to provide adequate
support to students with dyslexia.
Effective diagnosis of dyslexia on a global scale
requires further international cooperation and
exchange of experience. The development of
neurobiological research, the potential of using
information technologies, the development of
universal diagnostic principles and the standardization
of specialist training open up promising opportunities
for improving the identification and support of people
with dyslexia worldwide. Taking into account cultural
and linguistic characteristics, as well as striving to
create an inclusive educational environment, which
ensures equal opportunities for all, regardless of
neurobiological
characteristics
and
language
background, should be priorities in further research
and practical work.
Despite the differences, the analysis revealed some
common trends, such as the recognition of the
importance of phonological skills, the use of
psychometric assessment, and the pursuit of
interdisciplinary collaboration. However, the lack of
uniform international standards, difficulties in
adapting instruments, and unequal access to
diagnostic services remain serious challenges.
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