Volume 05 Issue 08-2025
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(ISSN
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VOLUME
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OCLC
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1368736135
A
BSTRACT
Gas sensing is critical for environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and healthcare diagnostics,
particularly for detecting hazardous or significant gases like volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ammonia,
and formaldehyde [1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10]. Traditional gas sensors often require external power sources, which
can limit their portability and deployment in remote or harsh environments. Self-powered gas sensors,
which harvest energy from their surroundings, offer a promising solution to this limitation. Triboelectric
nanogenerators (TENGs), devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy through the
coupling of triboelectrification and electrostatic induction, have emerged as effective power sources and
active sensing components for self-powered gas detection systems [20, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. This review provides a comparative analysis of the sensing mechanisms
employed in TENG-based self-powered gas sensors. It examines how the interaction between target gases
and the TENG's materials, or integrated sensing layers, leads to detectable changes in the TENG's electrical
output. Key mechanisms discussed include changes in triboelectric properties, modulation of integrated
resistive or capacitive sensing layers by the TENG's output, and gas ionization effects. Challenges and future
perspectives for the development of highly sensitive, selective, and stable self-powered gas sensors based
on TENGs are also addressed.
Research Article
Toward Battery-Free Sensing: A Comparative Overview of
TENG-Based Gas Sensor Mechanisms
Submission Date:
June 03,
2025,
Accepted Date:
July 02, 2025,
Published Date:
August 01, 2025
Dr. Rizky Mahendra
Center for Advanced Sensors and Energy Harvesting, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
Dr. Nurul Hidayah
Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
Journal
Website:
http://sciencebring.co
m/index.php/ijasr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 05 Issue 08-2025
2
International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
(ISSN
–
2750-1396)
VOLUME
05
ISSUE
08
Pages:
1-9
OCLC
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1368736135
K
EYWORDS
Self-powered sensors, Gas sensing, Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG), Sensing mechanisms,
Comparative review, Nanomaterials, Environmental monitoring, Wearable sensors.
I
NTRODUCTION
The increasing awareness of air quality issues and
the need for real-time monitoring of various gases
in diverse settings have driven the demand for
advanced gas sensing technologies [2, 3].
Hazardous gases from industrial processes,
combustion, or even biological sources pose
significant health and environmental risks [5, 8].
Furthermore, the analysis of gases in exhaled
breath holds potential for non-invasive disease
diagnosis [3, 10].
Conventional gas sensors, such as those based on
metal oxides, optical principles, or surface
acoustic waves, typically require continuous
power supply for operation, which can be a
limiting factor for portable, wearable, or
wirelessly distributed sensing networks [7, 12,
11, 16]. The development of self-powered sensors
that can harvest energy from ambient sources
presents a compelling alternative.
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have
gained significant attention as a versatile
technology for converting various forms of
mechanical energy, such as vibration, rotation,
and contact-separation, into electrical energy [20,
24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34]. Beyond their
energy harvesting capabilities, TENGs can also
function as active sensors, where changes in the
surrounding environment, including the presence
of gases, can directly influence their electrical
output [20, 37, 38, 39, 40]. This dual functionality
makes TENGs particularly well-suited for self-
powered gas sensing applications.
Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility
of using TENGs for detecting a variety of gases,
including ammonia, formaldehyde, ethanol, and
humidity, at room temperature and without
external power [6, 31, 35, 36, 9, 21]. This review
aims to systematically analyze and compare the
different sensing mechanisms employed in these
TENG-based self-powered gas sensors, providing
insights into their operational principles and
potential for further development.
M
ETHODS
This review was conducted by systematically
searching and analyzing peer-reviewed scientific
literature focusing on self-powered gas sensors
utilizing triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs).
Academic databases were the primary source of
information, using search terms such as
"triboelectric nanogenerator," "TENG," "self-
powered," "gas sensor," "sensing mechanism,"
"ammonia,"
"formaldehyde,"
"ethanol,"
"humidity," and combinations thereof.
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International Journal of Advance Scientific Research
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2750-1396)
VOLUME
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Pages:
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OCLC
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1368736135
The identified studies were screened based on
their relevance to TENG-based gas sensing and
the clear description of the sensing mechanism
involved. Articles focusing solely on TENGs for
energy harvesting or on gas sensors requiring
external power were generally excluded unless
they provided foundational knowledge relevant
to the sensing principles.
A thematic analysis approach was employed to
categorize and compare the different sensing
mechanisms reported in the literature. The
identified mechanisms were grouped based on
how the presence of the target gas influences the
TENG's operation and electrical output. The
primary sensing mechanisms identified and
analyzed include:
1.
Direct Triboelectric Property Modulation:
Mechanisms where the target gas directly
interacts with the triboelectric layers of the TENG,
altering their surface charge density, dielectric
properties, or contact area, thereby changing the
triboelectric output [6, 31, 35, 36, 44, 45, 46, 47,
48, 49, 50, 51].
2.
TENG-Driven
Resistive
Sensing:
Mechanisms where the TENG's harvested energy
powers a separate resistive gas sensing layer, and
the gas concentration is determined by
measuring the change in resistance of this layer
[9, 41].
3.
TENG-Driven
Capacitive
Sensing:
Mechanisms where the TENG's output is used to
power a capacitive sensing element, and the
presence of gas alters the dielectric properties of
the material between the capacitor plates, leading
to a change in capacitance [20].
4.
Gas
Ionization/Discharge
Effects:
Mechanisms where the high voltage generated by
the TENG in the presence of certain gases leads to
gas ionization or discharge, which can be detected
as a change in electrical signal [23].
For each mechanism, the underlying principles,
typical materials used, target gases, and reported
performance characteristics (e.g., sensitivity,
response time, selectivity) were extracted and
analyzed. The advantages and limitations of each
mechanism for self-powered gas sensing were
also considered.
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of three ways in which TENG equipment can be used in the food field. i. TENG-based,
self-powered sensor for food quality sensing. ii. TENG-based, self-powered sterilization equipment for food
sterilization. iii. TENG-based, self-powered system to promote crop growth.
The gathered information was synthesized to
provide a comparative overview of the different
sensing approaches. The Results section presents
the findings categorized by sensing mechanism.
The Discussion section provides a comparative
analysis, highlights the strengths and weaknesses
of each mechanism, discusses challenges, and
outlines future research directions based on the
identified themes.
R
ESULTS
The review of the literature revealed several
distinct mechanisms by which TENGs are utilized
for self-powered gas sensing.
Direct Triboelectric Property Modulation
In this mechanism, the target gas directly
interacts with the triboelectrically active
materials of the TENG, altering their surface
properties and thus influencing the triboelectric
effect. This interaction can involve adsorption of
gas molecules onto the surface, leading to changes
in surface charge density or work function [6, 31,
35, 36, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. For example,
materials like poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)
and various polymers are commonly used as
triboelectric layers, and their interaction with
gases like ammonia or formaldehyde can alter
their electron affinity or charge trapping
capabilities [6, 31, 35, 36].
The sensing signal in this mechanism is typically
a change in the open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-
circuit current (Isc), or transferred charge (Qsc)
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of the TENG upon exposure to the target gas. The
magnitude of this change is proportional to the
gas concentration. This approach offers the
advantage of a direct sensing mechanism
integrated within the energy harvesting unit,
potentially simplifying device design. Studies
have demonstrated room-temperature sensing of
ammonia and formaldehyde using this principle
[6, 31, 36]. The use of specific materials like PDMS
combined with conductive polymers (e.g.,
polypyrrole - Ppy) has been explored to enhance
sensitivity and selectivity [35]. Surface
engineering of the triboelectric layers is a key
strategy to improve the performance of sensors
based on this mechanism [31, 37, 38].
TENG-Driven Resistive Sensing
This approach utilizes the electrical energy
harvested by the TENG to power a separate gas
sensing element whose resistance changes upon
exposure to the target gas. Metal oxide
semiconductors (MOS) are common materials for
resistive gas sensors, exhibiting changes in
conductivity due to the adsorption and reaction of
gas molecules on their surface [7, 15, 18].
Quantum dots have also been explored as
resistive sensing materials [14].
In a TENG-driven resistive sensor, the TENG
provides the necessary voltage or current to
operate the MOS or other resistive sensing layer.
The change in resistance of the sensing layer is
then measured, often through a simple circuit
powered by the TENG. This mechanism allows for
the use of well-established and highly sensitive
resistive sensing materials. For example, a TENG
has been used to power a CuO thin film sensor for
formaldehyde detection [9]. This hybrid
approach separates the energy harvesting
function from the primary sensing mechanism,
which can allow for independent optimization of
each component. However, it requires integrating
two distinct functional units.
TENG-Driven Capacitive Sensing
Similar to resistive sensing, this mechanism
employs the TENG to power a capacitive gas
sensing element. Capacitive gas sensors operate
based on changes in the dielectric properties of a
material upon gas adsorption, which alters the
capacitance of the sensor [20]. Materials like
polymers or metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)
can be used as the dielectric layer in capacitive
sensors, and their interaction with polar gas
molecules or changes in humidity can lead to
measurable capacitance changes [17, 20].
The TENG provides the electrical energy to charge
the capacitive sensor and measure the
capacitance change. This can be achieved by
integrating the TENG with circuitry that converts
the TENG's output into a suitable signal for
capacitance measurement. This mechanism is
particularly relevant for detecting gases that
significantly influence the dielectric constant of
the sensing material, such as humidity [20, 21]. A
TENG-based system has been developed for self-
powered humidity sensing using a composite film
[21].
Gas Ionization/Discharge Effects
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This less common but intriguing mechanism
leverages the high voltage that can be generated
by a TENG, particularly in certain configurations
or under specific mechanical excitation. In the
presence of certain gases, this high voltage can
induce gas ionization or electrical discharge
phenomena [23]. The characteristics of this
ionization or discharge (e.g., breakdown voltage,
current pulses) are dependent on the
composition
and
concentration
of
the
surrounding gas.
The sensing signal is derived from detecting
changes
in
these
electrical
discharge
characteristics. This mechanism has been
explored for sensing inert gases, where the
TENG's output can ionize the gas, and the
resulting current is measured [23]. This approach
is distinct in that the gas itself participates in an
electrical process driven by the TENG's high
voltage output. It may be particularly suitable for
detecting gases that are easily ionizable.
D
ISCUSSION
The comparative analysis of sensing mechanisms
in TENG-based self-powered gas sensors
highlights the versatility of TENG technology in
this application. Each mechanism offers unique
advantages and is suited for different types of gas
sensing tasks.
Direct
triboelectric
property
modulation
provides a compact and potentially simpler
device architecture by integrating sensing
directly into the energy harvesting component.
This mechanism is particularly sensitive to gases
that strongly interact with the surface chemistry
and electronic properties of the triboelectric
materials. However, achieving high selectivity for
a specific gas using this mechanism alone can be
challenging, as multiple gases might interact with
the triboelectric surfaces. Material selection and
surface functionalization are critical for tuning
the sensitivity and selectivity [31, 37, 38].
TENG-driven resistive and capacitive sensing
mechanisms offer the advantage of utilizing well-
established and highly sensitive sensing materials
and principles. This allows for leveraging existing
knowledge and optimizing the sensing layer
independently of the TENG's energy harvesting
function. The TENG effectively replaces the need
for an external power supply, enabling self-
powered operation. The challenge lies in
efficiently converting the TENG's output into a
stable power source for the sensing circuit and
integrating the two components effectively. This
hybrid approach can potentially offer better
selectivity by choosing sensing materials specific
to the target gas [9, 20].
The gas ionization/discharge mechanism is a less
explored but potentially powerful approach,
particularly for gases that are difficult to detect by
other means. The high voltage capability of
TENGs is uniquely leveraged here. However,
controlling and reliably measuring the discharge
phenomena can be complex, and the sensitivity
and selectivity of this mechanism for a wide range
of gases require further investigation [23].
Overall, the choice of sensing mechanism depends
on the specific application requirements,
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including the target gas, desired sensitivity and
selectivity, operating environment, and cost
constraints. Future research should focus on
improving the sensitivity and selectivity of all
these mechanisms. This can involve developing
novel triboelectric materials with tailored gas
interactions, integrating highly selective sensing
layers with TENGs, and optimizing the design of
TENGs to enhance their output characteristics for
sensing purposes [37, 38, 39, 40].
Advances in triboelectric nanogenerators in acoustics: Energy harvesting and Sound sensing
Furthermore, the development of TENG-based
sensor arrays, combining multiple sensing
elements or mechanisms, could lead to electronic
nose-like devices capable of detecting and
identifying complex gas mixtures [41]. The
integration of TENG-based gas sensors into
wearable platforms and IoT networks is another
promising direction, enabling continuous and
distributed environmental monitoring and
personal healthcare applications [24, 25, 34, 102].
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Addressing challenges related to long-term
stability, response time, and recovery time for
different gases is also crucial for practical
implementation.
C
ONCLUSION
In conclusion, TENGs offer a compelling pathway
towards the development of self-powered gas
sensors with diverse sensing mechanisms.
Continued research into material science, device
design, and integration strategies will be key to
unlocking the full potential of TENG-based gas
sensing for a wide range of applications,
contributing to a healthier and safer
environment.
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