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ABSTRACT
This article was published on the basis of theoretical and comparative analysis of data recorded in scientifically based
literature, archival documents and written sources on the trade relations between Khiva Khanate and the state of Iran
and the issues of slavery in Khiva Khanate. Also, the status of Iranian slaves in Khiva Khanate and the price of slaves in
the markets were covered based on scientifically based literature.
KEYWORDS
Muhammad Kozim, V.A. Papazyan, Nadirshah, Shergazikhan, D. Gladishev, N. Muravinlar, S. Gmelin, Mak Gahan.
INTRODUCTION
economic-political relations between the Khanate of
Khiva and the state of Iran conducted intense trade
relations even during military conflicts. Silk fabrics
made by khwarezmian masters were also issued to Iran
[1.1983.P.269]. The Iranian traders themselves brought
various goods to Khiva, in return for which they took
the silk of Khiva [2.1947.P149]. Historical sources
indicate that the amount of fabrics of various types
was significant within the goods brought to Iranian
cities by khwarezmian merchants. The Iranian muarrikh
Muhammad Kozim Khiva Khan reported that a trade
caravan sent by Sherghozihan (18th century) came to
Mashhad and sold various types of cloth (what kind of
cloth is unknown) along with other goods[3.1974.P85].
Also noteworthy is the information of the
khwarezmian historians about the Khwarezmian
merchants of two hundred (1804), who set out for
Mashhad with many cloth and innumerable
miscellaneous goods ("usamayi bisyor and amtai-yi
beshumor") [4.1982.P224]. Iran itself is known to have
produced a wide variety of silk and cotton fabrics, even
issued in large quantities for foreign trade.
First of all, it should be noted that the silk and other
textile centers of Iran were located mainly in its
northern and northwestern part, and this sphere was
Research Article
TRADE RELATIONS AND SLAVERY BETWEEN THE KINGDOM OF XIVA
AND THE STATES OF IRAN
Submission Date:
December 10, 2023,
Accepted Date:
December 15, 2023,
Published Date:
December 20, 2023
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ijhps/Volume03Issue12-10
Bakdurdiyeva Kunduz Kuvondik's
Teacher Of The Department Of History, Faculty Of Economics And Humanities, Mamun University Non-State
Educational Institution, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ijhps
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
55
International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
(ISSN
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2771-2222)
VOLUME
03
ISSUE
12
P
AGES
:
54-60
SJIF
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MPACT
FACTOR
(2021:
5.
705
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(2022:
5.
705
)
(2023:
6.
713
)
OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
mainly in the hands of Armenians who mediated trade
with Europe.
Iran dealt with some issues of the history of trade
highways V.A. Papazyan also notes that from the 40s
of the 17th century, Safavid Iran was a major part of
Foreign Trade and Silk exports were all carried out
through caravan routes to northern Iran, Armenia, Asia
Minor and Mesopotamia[5.1986].P16]. In this respect,
it can be concluded that fabrics imported from
Khorezm are mainly intended for the markets of the
Eastern and southeastern provinces of Iran. Inter-
Internal in Iran. Wars, obstacles to communication
routes, the abundance of Customs created difficulties
in mutual economic relations between parts of the
country.
In particular, among the tortures that Khiva
ambassador Khoja Muhammad brought to Russian
Tsar Feyodor Ivanovich on November 11, 1585, was the
precious Maskhad bow, painted with all kinds of colors,
on which gold zari was kept (19.1932.P.68). This is
considered to be evidence of Khiva's trade with Iran.
Methods and degree of study: the history of the
interaction of the Khiva Khanate with the Iranian state
is the least studied, with the XVIII
–
XIX centuries being
taken as a periodic border in most of the existing work.
According to reports, Khiva and Bukhara yarn, cotton,
tanned sheepskin and lamb skin were purchased in
Iran.
According to reports, XIV ava bought Bukhara yarn,
cotton, tanned sheepskin and lamb skin in Iran. Indian
traders were very interested in the products of the
Khiva Khanate but, in the mid-18th century, few
brought the Khiva goods of Indian traders from Khiva
to Astrakhan. Because these goods were bought by
Indians from Iran and then brought to Astrakhan.
It should be noted separately that among the goods
imported to Russia from Central Asia were Iranian
coins. For example, 1749 14 merchants to Astrakhan
through Orenburg 17896 rub. 17 batch goods, including
10532 rub.listed are 3 batches of silver weighing 15
Poods 10 pounds. 3 batch of silver it is the so-
called”
Abbasid " silver coin of Iran. Middle Asian traders
traded silver for goods in Orenburg. Silver is every
(Russian unit of measurement i.e. misqoli (weight
measurement equal to 4.25 grams) 18 bags at the
money Psalms in Moscow.dan or a pudi 691 R. 20
k.received from (20.1990.P.118.). Silver coins were
brought to Russia from ava Xiv Bukhara through
middle Asian traders. So it can be concluded that in the
middle of the 18th century, trade relations were
thicker.
One of the references to the Khiva Khanate is an article
published in the Journal "Manufaktur I torgovlya" in
1843. It writes that from Russia, Iran, Kokand and
Bukhara, metal objects are obtained: lead, copper,
iron, cast iron. Khiva goods were transported by camel
and ship by waterway to Russia, Iran and Bukhara.
Hence, firstly, the Khanate of Khiva had trade relations
with the Iranian Davs, secondly, Khiva goods were
carried to Russia by the hands of Indian traders, and
thirdly, the Indians performed an intermediary roll in
the Khiva-Russian trade through Iran.
P. According to Nebolsin, in the middle of the 19th
century, Khiva traded with Iran and Bukhara, from Iran,
almost a single Mashkhad to Khiva, with a length of 36
arshins (a measure of length equal to 0.711 meters, i.e.
25 meters) and a width of 11-12 vershoks (a measure of
length equal to 4.4 cm, that is, from 48.4-52.8 CM),
small floral and chit scrolls with Green large
inflorescences A slice of such chits is sold from 1.5 to 2
Tylo. In exchange for these goods, Khiva issues coins to
Iran, Russian and local leather, Russian Blue, Khiva silk,
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sesame and other items. Khiva was given blue tea from
Kashgar through Kokand[17.1980.P185]. In addition,
Turkmens bordering Iran released horses, camels,
sheep, carpets, salt, oil, which was replaced by
weapons, wood, gunpowder, tobacco, paint and fruit
from Iran. [17.1980.P34].
In addition, dry fruits are also presented from Iran.
Raisins and jiyda were brought from Mashkhad, and it
was used in the preparation of vodka. One pud of
Iranian raisins 16 coins (8 rub.) standing.
In his paper in 1840, Gilmersen claimed that the Khiva
troops were armed with swords, spears, rifles, that the
captains wore robes, that the robe was brought from
Iran. (18. 1840. P. 105)
The "record of how much duty will be charged
wherever Iran is" gives an idea of the situation of
merchants who must pass through 6 customs to carry
goods from Tabriz to Resht, and 8 customs on the road
from Resht to Isfahan, paying duty to each[6.1997.P84-
85]. The researcher, who pointed out that the order on
the roads, the officials responsible for the transport of
goods, abused their service duties, also notes that
merchants on the territory of the Safavid state were
more worried by the monks themselves than by
pirates[5.1986.P23].
A reference in the 1823 issue of"Sibirsky Vestnik" notes
that silk, semi-silk and silk fabrics produced for linen in
Khiva, canavis, velvet, Boz, etc., and their prices,
especially silk fabrics, were not high[7.1823.P14].
Chopping in Khiva was very well established, and the
choppers of this place were distinguished from those
of other regions by their quality and appearance, and
were considered popular in neighboring regions.
Silk and cotton linen of Khiva, intended for the internal
needs of the population, had its buyers even among
the steppe population. In the Khiva market, the
Russian merchant Abrasimov, who exchanged such
swarms for his last goods, noted that on his return
from Khiva, he made a huge profit by successfully
selling them to the people of the steppe[8.1952].P370].
Cotton calavas, as well as cotton and silk fabrics, black
leather (merlushka), gold, silver and various precious
stones, were carried to the Kazakh land from Central
Asia[9.1997].P157]. Mac Gahan, observing a Kazakh
man seen among the crowd at the Khiva market,
describes that "he probably went over 30 - 40 miles of
masaofa, bought a pair of sheep, and instead came to
buy some tea, sugar, a few fresh toads, and a few
beads-charms
to
his
wife
and
daughter"
[10.1880.P406].
Central Asian merchants have exported to Iran
products from other countries such as tea, paper,
"Russian leather", chit, handkerchiefs, mouvoutes,
mirrors, Crystal, porcelain, iron and copper vessels,
pots, iron and chests, as well as re-export (re-export)
cash
coins
minted
in
Russian
and
their
own[1.1983].P.269].
Results of the study: Iranian traders who brought
various goods to Khiva took Khiva and Russian coins
minted from these lands, as well as large amounts of
leather, Russian goods such as mouvut[2.1947.P149].
But through other sources it is possible to learn about
the Turkmens who conducted much more active trade
with Khwarazm and Iran. In particular, the"Shajarayi
turk", though not detailed, mentions three seeds (ali
eli, xizr eli and tevachi) farming in the amudarya buoys
as well as Taka Turkmen traders[11.1999.P128]. There is
also information about Turkmen tribes who began to
come to Marv for commercial and peaceful purposes,
ending constant attacks due to the measures
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
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6.
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Publisher:
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implemented by the Nodirshah, who sought to revive
economic life in Iran[6.1997].P298].
In 1773, S. was on the eastern shores of the Caspian
Sea. Gmelin reported that the Turkmens traded with all
their neighbors: the khivans, bukharians, Kazakhs,
karakalpaks, astrobodians and Russians[12.1958.P207].
The author also noted that the Turkmens, who
conducted a much more intense trade with Astrabad
and Mozandaron, took the Persians in kırjim
-boats with
the necessary products: oil, salt, animal wool
(coverings), blankets, woolen cloth bags, carpets,
camel wool fabrics, Bukhara fabrics, saddles, silver
objects, etc., and returned with flour, rice, European
blue, silk and cotton fabrics, Iranian money, swords,
daggers and other weapons.
Horses bred in Khiva were also supplied by Turkmen. N,
who expressed a negative opinion above. Although
Muravyov himself was an excellent horse in Khiva, the
best of the horses were mentioned by the Turkmen as
being brought from Gurgon and Atrok.
Khiva's trade relations with Astrabad are narrated to
have been actively engaged by the Yovmut Turkmen
tribe, while the mashhad Bukhara trade through the
desert was attended by the tekke Turkmen tribes.
Slaves, horses, camels, sheep, carpets, and felt were
mainly transported from the desert regions to Khiva
and from there to Bukhara. Slaves were sold only for
money, and the rest were exchanged. Grain from Khiva
and Bukhara, lamb skin, Russian metal objects and
thread fabrics were issued to Turkmen tribes
(21.1873.P.34).
Under the leadership of Rizokulikhan Lolaboshi of 1851,
ambassadors visit from Iran. The main goal of the
embassy mission was to achieve the liberation of all
Iranian citizens who were in complications in the
Khanate, bring them with them to Iran and force the
Khan to issue a special decree aimed at banning the
crowds of people who were organizing on Iranian
borders, as well as to force the import and sale of
Muslims, that is, the abolition of As a result of the
negotiations, unfortunately Lolaboshi did not achieve
his goal(22.1978.P.16).
Shia sectarian representatives were in dire straits.
Because, as a result of the March of the Khiva Khans or
Bukharan emirs to the territories of Iran, and most
importantly the “crowd” –
invasions of Turkmen tribes,
thousands of captives were sold as Shiite
–
unbelievers
as slaves in the markets of Khiva and Bukhara. Even the
state had introduced a special tax exemption tag for
serfdom, which would further develop slavery.
The second volume of the w
ork” Firdavsu
-l-iqbol " in
the first book briefly cites the story of the murder of
Sherghozikhan by Iranian slaves in 1726-1727
[13.2019.P155]
The first time the liberation of slaves in the Khiva
Khanate in large quantities (in public) was carried out
by the Iranian King Nodirshah. He had freed many
slaves after the conquest of Khwarezm in 1740. In
particular, in the first book of the work “Firdavs
-ul-
Iqbal”, the second volume describes these events:
“The King spent another three days in tawaqquf, and
in the Land of usaroikim, Shar'i sharif bila Khwarazm,
Qadi Qadi was melted (in slavery, captivity), zakuran
and inosan (men and women) took everyone, and each
In this way, some Kalmyk and Russian slaves were
taken to taste. The number of Ul jumladin Khurosan
usaro was twelve thousand mutajovuz (more than)
erdi vaturt thousand dorussaltana Khivaqdin erdi, alar
Khurosong fluently built a Hissar in the four Persians of
Obivard and, having a good season, ul killed the
captives in anda”[13.2019].P159].
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This information was provided by the Russian
ambassadors D., who were at the same time in the
Khiva Khanate.Gladyshev and N.The muravins also
confirm in their memoirs[13.1951.P79].
English historian Michael Aksworthy argues that the
reason for the fact that Nodhirshah carried out such an
event was because his mother was captured by
Turkmens and sold as a slave to Khiva[15.2006.P52].
During the occupation of Hardikul raboti (Gurlanda) on
19 September 1810, its Governor O'rozali inoq was
fiercely opposed by his 5-6 slaves[13.1951.P103].
At the same time, the fact that during the campaigns
to the wayward Beks, Turkmens, Dashti Kipchak
Kazakhs and Iranian territories, a special army of
slaves, always led by the Avaz Centurion, is mentioned
a lot in the work[13.1951.P109, 276, 326, 345].
The main source of replenishment of the slave markets
of the Khiva Khanate were the “crowds”organized
by
Turkmen tribes. Including the work " Firdavsu-l-
iqbol”
in December 1821, where the yovmuts marched to
Bukhara and brought many captives. According to the
registration of these captives they must have been
enslaved[13.1951.P361-362].
Muhammad Rizo Ernio
zbek's son Ogahi's “Riyazu
-d-
davla” (state parks) reflects the history of the Khiva
Khanate under Ollogulikhan (1825-1842). This work
shows in poetic style the defeat of an Iranian-qizilbah
soldier in the event of Ollogulikhan's March to
Mashhad as well as the fact that the price of one
hundred slaves in the slave market fell for one money
as a result of so much capture.
To‘lub qo‘shlarg‘a qul bisyor
-bisyor,
Ugulub o‘lja ham xarvor
-xarvor.
Bo‘lub bozor lashkargoh fazosi,
Ki bir pul bo‘lmayin yuz qul bahosi[
16.2020.P61-62].
It was as a continuation of this event that it was noted
that even during the march in which the Khiva troops
were organized into the Gurgon, Khof and Sabzabor
regions, a large part of the population, especially
women and children, were enslaved in large
numbers[16.2020.P64-67-69].
The work” riyazu
-d-davla " also makes many references
to the slave army. So, this army could be a military
group made up of red-headed Iranians and their
artillery from the Russians[16.2020.P106-108].
Prince Abbas Mirzo, son of the king of Iran, gathers a
large army against the Khanate troops of Khiva as well
as the invading campaigns of the Turkmen tribes to
march to Khurasan and send his envoy to Khan with a
letter. The letter had advocated the enslavement of
many inhabitants in the aftermath of the looting
campaigns carried out earlier, now freeing them and
further strengthening ties between the two
states[16.2020.B243].
The “Gulshani state” of the Ogahi to the time of Sayyid
Muhammad Khan (1856-1865) also contains much less
information about slaves. In particular, he writes only
in the details of the incident of the Iranian qojar
offensive of 1861 (1277 Ah, In the month of Shawwal)
that in the battle near Marv, taka Turkmen Iran's
Hamza Mirza and Qavomuddavla chief tor-mor an army
of 35,000 men, the aksari of those captured from these
soldiers were enslaved. In particular: "Alqissa, the taka
category, as well as the qawwiyya adversary, made
bilkull maqhur and mashul, and after haddin afzun and
qiyosdin barin zaru molga became mutasarrif,
forigballiq bila hazrati made zuljalol's shukrin bajo
kelturub, and Marv region their own dwelling and
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Publisher:
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Ma'man. And around the captives drove a group to sell
to the provinces. And the Jame of the Islamic lands
filled the markets with asiru bardadin, " wrote
Oghahi[17.2019].P199-203].
The main source of replenishment of the slave markets
of the Khiva Khanate were the “crowds”organized by
Turkmen tribes. In addition, those captured as a result
of the military campaigns of the Khiva Khans were also
sold in slave markets.
Muhammad Rizo Erniozbek's son Ogahi's “Riyazu
-d-
davla” (state parks) reflects the history of the Khiva
Khanate under Ollogulikhan (1825-1842). This work
shows in poetic style that in the event of Ollogulikhan's
March to Mashhad, the defeat of an Iranian-qizilbah
soldier, as well as the capture of so much, resulted in
the price of one hundred slaves in the slave market
falling for a sum(23. 2020.
–
B. 61-62.).
In pages 37-
38 of laffasius's “the emancipation”, he
also left valuable information on the prices, prices of
slaves. In particular, Russian slaves were valued for
their hard work towards Iranian slaves. While the
estimates of Russian slaves averaged 100
–
200 golds,
the estimates of Iranian slaves were 60
–
70 golds. If
sold with the family of an Iranian slave, 100
–
150 were
sold in Gold.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we can say that in the Iranian state, trade
has developed, and in foreign trade it has mainly issued
its own goods to the Khanate of Khiva. Turkmen tribes
also played an important role in the economic relations
of these states. The Turkmens carried the handicrafts
they produced mainly for sale to the khanates of Iran
and Khiva. The rulers of both states paid special
attention to the development of foreign and domestic
trade.
In addition, slaves of Iranian, tukman and various other
nationalities were also sold in the markets of the Khiva
Khanate. The Iranian government has been forced to
conduct several ambassadorial exchanges with the
Khanate of Khiva in order to save its citizens from
slavery. Slaves in the Khiva Khanate were mostly
citizens of neighboring states who were captured
during military campaigns.
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