Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
37
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
–
2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
01
Pages:
37-46
SJIF
I
MPACT
FACTOR
(2021:
5.
705
)
(2022:
5.
705
)
(2023:
6.
997
)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
ABSTRACT
This article is devoted to an extensive class of military abbreviations, as well as the process of their formation. The
impetus for the creation and widespread use of abbreviations was the reduction of wartime. A characteristic feature
of military vocabulary is the extremely wide use of abbreviations, the variety of their types and the high rate of
renewal. This phenomenon is due to the rapid improvement of military equipment and weapons, and the formation
of the armed forces as one of the main social institutions led to the emergence of a huge number of new concepts,
terms, nomenclature names.
KEYWORDS
Abbreviation, military, saturation, word formation, reduction, coincide, acronyms, revolution, wars, initials,
submarine.
INTRODUCTION
From the point of view of word formation,
abbreviation is a topical subject of research, since the
question of whether to consider it one of the ways to
form new words is still being discussed [6, 29]. Since
abbreviations as a new type of words enriched the
system of lexemes of the language, but, however, did
not lead to the emergence of any non-lexical,
typologically new units, nor did they lead to the
complication of the language structure [4].
Due to the fact that each language has a limited
number of root elements and affixes, today, together
with traditional methods of word formation (word
production and word formation), such methods of
vocabulary
replenishment
as
semantic
word
formation, borrowing and abbreviation play an
increasingly important role. According to the
definition, abbreviations are nouns that consist of
truncated segments of words that are part of a
Research Article
WORD FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ABBREVIATIONS IN
MODERN ENGLISH
Submission Date:
January 20, 2024,
Accepted Date:
January 25, 2024,
Published Date:
January 30, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ijll/Volume04Issue01-08
Avyasova Irina Rafailovna
Senior Teacher At Jizzakh State Pedagogical University, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ijll
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
38
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
–
2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
01
Pages:
37-46
SJIF
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FACTOR
(2021:
5.
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)
(2022:
5.
705
)
(2023:
6.
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)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
synonymous phrase, the supporting component of
which cannot be a whole, untruncated word. In this
case, the special advantage of abbreviation is the
creation of new root words and root elements. It
should also be noted that word formation by
abbreviation is possible in conjunction with other ways
of replenishing the vocabulary. In addition, the
language resorts to abbreviations only when they are
linguistically more appropriate than in other ways.
MAIN PART
Since the abbreviation actively interacts with other
ways of word formation. Consider the ways of forming
new words using traditional word-formation methods:
- word formation: RAF (Royal Air Force) - Rafer - "a
soldier of the British Air Force"; RAND (Research and
Development Corporation) - RANDster - "an employee
of
the
RAND
Corporation";
morphologically
complicated cases are possible, for example: UNESCO
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization) - Unescan -
“belonging to UNESCO”;
- word combinations: MATS (military Air Transport
Service) + man - MATSman -
“military air transport
service soldier”;
- conversions: RAF (Royal Air Force) - to raff - "subject
to attack from the air"; PX (Post Exchange) - to PX -
“buy something in the store of the military trade
service.
In addition, abbreviation is often combined with
another way of word formation. With the help of the
joint action of abbreviation and suffixation, for
example, the words are formed: blackie (blacksmith -
black + ie) - blacksmith", brickie (bricklayer> brick + fie)
-
"mason", postie (postman> pо'st + ie)
- " postman".
In these cases, special abbreviated morphemes appear
(-black-, -brick-, -post-), which only formally coincide
with the root morphemes -black-, -brick-, -post- that
already existed in English.
Linguists have developed rules for compiling complex
abbreviated lexical units from standard abbreviated
components. The most successful initial abbreviations
are beginning to be used as "samples" to create new
abbreviations, which also contributes to the
typification of abbreviations. The most important
impetus for the development of abbreviation was the
discovery and widespread use of correlative acronyms
- initial abbreviations that have the phonetic structure
of ordinary words [5].
Abbreviation as word formation is a complex and
rather extensive phenomenon. The relevance of
abbreviation lies in the need to name new concepts
and objects. The expediency is the creation of
extremely economical and semantically capacious
nominative units.
The abbreviation method of word formation is the
most subjective and, perhaps, the most artificial
among all known methods. This is due to numerous
features of abbreviation: trial and error when creating
names, variability and occasionality, intensity of
diachronic changes, susceptibility to regulation, weak
national fixation and free permeability, etc. [1]
Abbreviations and abbreviations are considered
productive ways of word formation, both in modern
English and in Russian. Compound words, which are
formed by adding the initial parts or syllables of words,
as well as alphabetic abbreviations, as a more
convenient form of complex terms for written
communication,
have
received
predominant
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
39
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
–
2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
01
Pages:
37-46
SJIF
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FACTOR
(2021:
5.
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(2022:
5.
705
)
(2023:
6.
997
)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
distribution.
In
general,
abbreviations
and
abbreviations are more widespread in English than in
Russian.
The undeniable fact that abbreviation and abbreviation
are the most productive in recent decades and regular
ways of forming lexical units means the language's
desire to save language efforts, and also indicates its
rationalization.
Numerous neologisms testify to the continuous
emergence of new abbreviations. A striking example of
the successful functioning of abbreviations and
abbreviations in modern English is the well-known
expression O.K. There are many versions of the origin
of this abbreviation. She is credited with both
American and European ancestry. For example, it can
be the initial letters of the German Oberst
Kommandant - senior commander. According to the
French, OK is a military abbreviation for "0 Killed",
which was used in reports during the war period. The
entry meant "0 killed". An American scientist, an
English teacher at Columbia University, Allen Walker
Reed, seriously began to study the origin of OK, having
studied 12 versions. One of them was associated with
Orrin Kendall crackers, which were given to soldiers
during the American Civil War. According to another
version, this abbreviation is the term of telegraphists
Oren Keu ("public key").
According to Allen, this abbreviation first appeared in a
satirical article about bad spelling in the Boston
Morning Post in 1839 and it was written in the form of
Oll Korrect (not all correct). In 1840, OK was used as the
initials of Old Kinderhook (pseudonym of Martin van
Buren, 8th President of the United States). His
campaign slogan was "Vote OK". Other linguists
believe that the abbreviation has an older origin: for
example, it may belong to the Indians. Okeh means
yes.
Abbreviation influenced the creation of a non-affixal
way of word formation, i.e. reduction of the stem in an
abbreviated way, regardless of the boundary of
morphemes (non-morphemic truncation of a lexical
unit). The non-affixal way of forming words applies
only to nouns. The derived word has a stylistic coloring
(usually reduced) and a special expressiveness in
speech. Most often, this method is used in oral speech.
To date, this relatively new way of word formation has
become widespread in American English and has
reached a high degree of productivity. A word is
identified as an abbreviated word as long as its full
form exists in the language, from which it was formed.
Otherwise, it begins to function as an ordinary,
unabbreviated lexical unit.
An important role in solving the problem of
abbreviation is played by the relationship between
sound and meaning. The main factor in this is the
position of the connection of the abbreviation with the
phenomenon of reality through the corresponding full
names. V.P. Voloshin found out that the meaning of the
original phrase is assigned both to the abbreviation as
a whole and to each of its components - a sound or
sound combination that can be distinguished as part of
the abbreviation. These components of the original
phrase are called "decoding". As a result, the
abbreviation becomes understandable only thanks to
"decoding", except for special cases. [12] With this
question it is worth referring to the conclusion of K.A.
Levkovskaya, who found that the relationship between
sound and meaning in complex abbreviated words is of
a completely different nature than in ordinary words of
the language: it is not carried out directly, but rather
through the appropriate decoding [8]. However, if an
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
40
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
–
2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
01
Pages:
37-46
SJIF
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(2021:
5.
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5.
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(2023:
6.
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)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
abbreviated word is widely used and exists more or
less long in the language, a direct connection between
sound and meaning can gradually be established, and
the abbreviation does not need to be deciphered for
understanding.
We can conclude that the problem of the connection
between the sound and meaning of abbreviations is
one of the main, most complex and controversial
problems in the study of abbreviations. Either the
recognition of abbreviations as full-fledged words, or
their assignment to "lexico-semantic variants" of full
forms that do not have their own meaning depends on
its decision, which will not allow them to be considered
words in full.
Studying the question of the fundamental difference
between an abbreviation and a phrase, E.P. Voloshin
notes that acronyms and sound-letter abbreviations
are not compound words, in contrast to the structural-
semantic variety of compound words, but are
monemes, i.e. simple, monomorphic words. The
decomposition of their morphological composition,
characteristic of such cases of analysis, is impossible
without the involvement of extralinguistic data.
Despite the fact that E.P. Voloshin does not name a
direct connection between the sound and meaning of
abbreviations, the very fact of recognizing them as
monemes suggests that this connection has the same
character in them as in simple, monomorphemic ones
[8,94]. At the same time, V.V. Borisov points out that it
is not clear why the comparison of the abbreviation
with the original phrase is characterized by E.P.
Voloshin as "involving extralinguistic data", since it is
obvious that the comparison of various lexical units is
one of the methods of linguistic analysis.
It is also worth noting that the language does not
always include two forms: the original, i.e. full name
and abbreviated, i.e. abbreviation. There are cases
when, along with the abbreviation, there may not be a
full form, due to the fact that in some cases the lexical
abbreviation may eventually become an independent
word, i.e. main way of expressing this concept.
Referring abbreviations to lexical units, we must
recognize the unity of sound and meaning, while the
meaning is not associated with individual sounds
(phonemes) that make up this abbreviation, but with a
specially organized sound range, which is the
abbreviation.
In this connection, we can conclude that, in general,
the
process
of
formation
of
abbreviations
(abbreviation)
can
be
characterized
as
the
replacement of any stable language expression (word,
phrase) in oral or written speech with a shorter
expression based on the material of the first
expression and with maintaining a common semantic
content. The meaning of the abbreviation process is to
rationalize the use of the material elements of the
language for communicative purposes, that is, its
sound and graphic shell.
Abbreviation word formation within the framework of
military vocabulary is one of the main tools of language
economy. One of the reasons for the spread of this
method of word formation is the progress in the field
of military equipment. Denoting cumbersome terms
with
capacious
abbreviations
facilitates
the
maintenance of written documentation, and also saves
time on negotiations and briefings. However, it
significantly complicates the task of the translator. For
example, the abbreviation "AAA" to a simple layman
may remind the size of AA batteries, but for a military
translator it is nothing more than Anti-aircraft artillery.
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
41
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
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2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
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(2021:
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5.
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(2023:
6.
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OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
The main tool of work in this case is the dictionary of
military abbreviations, which includes all the already
established abbreviations and where new ones are
regularly added.
Thus, we can conclude that the facts of the language
show the involvement of the abbreviation in the
system of word-formation means. And entering the
word-formation system, on the one hand, it cannot but
be exposed to the action of stable, established
elements of this system, and on the other hand, it
cannot but exert its influence on them.
Based on the analysis of abbreviation as a process, the
main features of abbreviations as a product of
abbreviation are established, the differences between
abbreviations and some similar phenomena are
revealed (for example: a letter symbol), and the main
types of lexical units are also characterized.
Let's consider three basic concepts: "abbreviation",
"abbreviation" and "abbreviation".
Abbreviation is the process of creating a secondary
nomination, which consists in reducing the linear
length of the original name, and resulting in the
formation of an abbreviated structural version of this
name as a result of using a number of formal
operations.
An abbreviation is a unit of written or oral speech
created from individual elements of the graphic or
sound shell of the original full form (most often a
word), with which this unit is in a certain lexico-
semantic connection.
The terms "abbreviation" and "abbreviation"
distinguish between such concepts as the process of
creating a nomination and its final result, while the
term "reduction" can denote both the process of
reducing the sound or graphic form of a word, and the
result of this process [1, 2].
According to some studies of abbreviation processes,
abbreviation can be characterized as a specific means
of word formation necessary to create structural-
specific and stylistic variants of words (in connection
with which abbreviations are not considered as words
when they first appear in the text, but acquire the
status of words in the course of language
development) . According to many linguists,
abbreviations do not replenish the dictionary, but
reduce the original lexical unit, but at the same time,
there is a possibility of abbreviations moving into the
sphere of common use, and also, in the course of
language development, an abbreviation can become a
separate independent word. [7]
In the process of abbreviation, the following features
are usually taken into account: nominalization, two-
sidedness
and
functionality.
E.M.Beregovskaya
considers abbreviations as structural and stylistic
equivalents of words and phrases, receiving "the right
of way of circulation, while the expanded name serves
only as a means of interpreting the meaning of the
abbreviation." In other words, abbreviated signs are
conditional abbreviations of the verbal signs of
supporting phrases with the same subject correlation,
which are their stylistic synonyms. An abbreviation is a
secondary code that performs the function of
replacing one linguistic material form with another.[10,
174-179]
As for the English military vocabulary itself, it should be
said that abbreviations are an integral part of the oral
speech of military personnel, and are also widely used
in various written documents. There are types of
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
42
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
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VOLUME
04
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Pages:
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(2021:
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OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
documents in which only proper names and
geographical names are given in full form, otherwise
they consist entirely of abbreviations.
Saturation with abbreviations is a feature of special
literature and reflects one of the main ways of
informational optimization of a message. However, the
variety of forms of creating abbreviations in English
often leads to difficulties in their interpretation in
Russian. When working with them, it is important to
remember that due to the lack of international and
national standards for abbreviations, many English
abbreviations do not have equivalents in Russian. In
this case, the translation is carried out using other
special methods of conveying the meaning of a
particular term, but the absence of an equivalent leads
to a partial loss of the meaning of the translated word,
and also its semantic coloring is lost.
The function of abbreviations in the process of
communication is to express thoughts more
economically and to eliminate redundancy of
information. In other words, in the reduction of formal
language material (sound or graphic) to convey a
certain semantic content.
To understand the essence and patterns of functioning
of abbreviations in a language, one should consider the
problem of their origin.
The occurrence of abbreviations can be explained by
the "principle of least effort" and "the law of economy
of speech means".[3, 49] “The trend of economy in
language is manifested in the creation of abbreviated
units that penetrate into all spheres of human activity
as a kind of reaction against the excessive expenditure
of physiological efforts, against all kinds of
inconveniences that complicate the work of memory,
the implementation of certain brain functions
associated with the production and reproduction of
speech” . Research on the topic of speech economy
was carried out both in domestic and foreign linguistic
literature. Abbreviation is associated with the main
communicative function of the language and provides
the needs of communication not by "saving effort",
but by condensing information by increasing the
informational value of certain elements of formal
language material.
The development of abbreviation and its distribution in
written and oral speech can be explained by the
redundancy of the language and the uneven
distribution of information in the individual elements
of the speech flow. The omission of elements that do
not carry new information does not affect the
understanding of the semantic content of a segment
of speech. In this connection, it is expedient to reduce
the informational value of the statement (i.e.,
replacing a detailed statement with a short one) in
order to increase the communicative capabilities of the
language.
This means that the abbreviation is to ensure the
transfer of the maximum amount of information with
the minimum use of the material shell of the language
(sound shell and graphic form).
The classification of abbreviations is quite extensive.
The first sign by which abbreviations are divided is the
number of components. The abbreviations are one-Jy -
July, two-RJ - Road Junction, three-SAC - Strategic Aix
Command, four- FEBA - Forward Edge of the Battle
Area, and five- LACAS - Low Altitude Cilose Air Support
component. The occurrence of more than five-
component abbreviations in documents is very rare. [9,
37-42]
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
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(2023:
6.
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OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
Abbreviations are divided into two large groups:
graphic and lexical.
A graphic abbreviation is a reduction of a word due to
the omission of several letters, which does not have a
special sound form and requires decoding when
reading, since it cannot function independently in
speech. In other words, this is a way of abbreviating a
word or phrase (for example, Svc Pit is read service
platoon "service platoon").
In graphic abbreviations, punctuation marks such as
dot, hyphen, slash, etc. are widely used. In this regard,
there are several types of graphic abbreviations:
–
dot abbreviations, for example, int.
–
interjection, s.b.
–
somediv, log.
–
logic, fam.
–
family;
- hyphen abbreviations, for example, H-P - high-power,
ah-d - ahead, h-f -
hard facet;
- oblique abbreviations, for example, f / lg - focal length,
i / b - in bulk, in / in - inside / inside;
- zero (without dots) abbreviations, for example, fcap -
foolscap, ib - ibidem, mo - month;
- combined abbreviations, for example, cu.-sec - cubic
feet per second, cu.-nb.
–
cumulonimbus.
In English, there are several semantic groups of graphic
abbreviations in which they are most often found. One
of which is military ranks, for example, capt - captain,
col - colonel, sgt - sergeant, etc.
A characteristic feature of graphic abbreviations is that
the same abbreviation can be read differently
depending on the context. For example, fl - filter, finish
line, flat, Florida, foreign language. Another option is
also possible, where the same word is replaced by
several ways of graphic abbreviations. For example,
octane number - ON, O.N., on, o.n.
Lexical abbreviation is the creation of a new lexeme
different from the original unit both in graphics and
phonetics, and sometimes in semantics and grammar.
Lexical abbreviations, unlike graphic abbreviations, are
used both in oral and written speech.
As the first type of abbreviations, syllabic abbreviations
can be distinguished by transformation. Their main
difference from graphic abbreviations is that the form
of the word changes not only graphically, but also
phonetically: the abbreviated word is read according to
the current spelling rules as an ordinary word (for
example, sub from submarine “submarine” or
submachine-
gun “automatic, pistol
- machine gun").
The next type is alphabetic or initial abbreviations. This
is the reduction of phrases to the initial letters of the
words included in them. Most often, such lexical units
belong to the class of nouns and have a nominal
character (for example, BBC (British Broadcasting
Corporation); UK (United Kingdom), USN ['ju:'es'en] -
United States Navy "US Navy"). The combination of
initialisms with non-abbreviated words form new
lexical units (for example, PC word processor forms a
new abbreviation PCW, i.e. the initialism PC is
“embedded” in the initialism PCW). There are often
cases when, in order to recognize an abbreviation as
initialism, it is enough that it also includes not initial
letters, but at least one initial letter from among the
abbreviated words (for example, XGA = eXtended
Graphics Adapter).
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
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(2023:
6.
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OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
There are two ways of voicing initialisms: as an ordinary
word according to the current spelling standards
(NATO) or letter-by-letter voicing (BBC).
In addition, lexical abbreviations include acronyms.
These are abbreviations that coincide in form with
common words, formed from the initial letters or
syllables of the phrase (for example, BOSS biological
orbiting satellite station "biological orbital station", cf.
boss "boss, owner"). Acronyms are one of the new,
promising and least studied ways of word formation,
which has become widespread in modern English.
Lexical abbreviation should be considered as a way of
word formation, the result of which is the emergence
of various abbreviated lexemes, while graphic
abbreviation is a phenomenon directly related to
abbreviated entries, in which the entries themselves
are graphic abbreviations.
It is worth noting that some types of abbreviations are
so similar to each other that, undergoing certain
morphological and phonetic changes, they can move
from one type to another. For example, CD-ROM -
Compact Disc read-only memory - here the first part is
read letter by letter, and the second - like a regular
word. In such cases, it is not possible to determine this
abbreviation to one particular species.
Thus, the classification of abbreviations is not based on
one feature, but on the basis of a combination of two
defining features: by the method of abbreviation and
by the method of reading.
Abbreviations can also include non-letter characters.
Most often, these are numeric characters that can
replace a whole word in an abbreviation.
1. Cardinal numbers.
DS1 - Digital Signal level 1 - Digital signal with level 1.
DS2 - Digital Signal level 2 - Digital signal with level 2.
2. Ordinal number.
1LT - first lieutenant - first lieutenant.
1SGT - first sergeant - first sergeant.
3. Multiple number.
F2F - Frequency - Double Frequency - two-frequency.
4. Numerals 2 (two) and 4 (four) as consonant
prepositions to and for.
B2B - Business to Business - interaction company -
company.
B2C - Business to Customer - interaction between the
company and the client.
5. Numerals as a "metasign". That is, in the form of a
way to indicate the number of successive letter
abbreviations.
C2IS - Command and Control Information Systems -
information control and guidance system.
C4 - Command, Control, Communications and
Computers - command, control, communications and
computer technology.
Since communication in the military sphere is
characterized by the need for an accurate and
economical designation of special concepts used in
certain sections of military science, abbreviations of all
kinds are often used in it (Barinov, 2007).
If we pay attention to the typology of abbreviated
units based on their functioning in different types of
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
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(ISSN
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VOLUME
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(2021:
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(2023:
6.
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)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
contexts, three main functional types of abbreviated
nominations used in modern English, especially in
written discourse, are most often considered:
- copyright or occasional;
- text;
- generally accepted; [11, 56]
Occasional or author's abbreviations in linguistics are
called a layer of abbreviated names, namely, "one-
time" nominations that are not entered in dictionaries,
do not have a generally accepted meaning, depend on
the context, existing within the same source. This type
is quite widely represented by acronyms.
Text
abbreviations,
along
with
occasional
abbreviations, need explanation or decoding, exist
within a certain context and belong to highly
specialized and professional areas. Often these include
abbreviations of military vocabulary.
Common abbreviations are regularly used in the
language, have systemic relations with the usual
vocabulary and normative status, are active in word
formation, and are included in dictionaries. In the list of
generally accepted abbreviations, there is a well-
established group of abbreviated lexical units -
abbreviations-internationalisms, denoting concepts
that are common or important from one point of view
or another for native speakers.
Thus, we found out that there are various
classifications of abbreviated units, the purpose of
which is to replace any stable linguistic expression in
oral and written speech with a shorter expression
created on the basis of the original lexical unit while
maintaining the general meaning of the content.
Text
abbreviations,
along
with
occasional
abbreviations, need explanation or decoding, exist
within a certain context and belong to highly
specialized and professional areas. Often these include
abbreviations of military vocabulary.
Common abbreviations are regularly used in the
language, have systemic relations with the usual
vocabulary and normative status, are active in word
formation, and are included in dictionaries. In the list of
generally accepted abbreviations, there is a well-
established group of abbreviated lexical units -
abbreviations-internationalisms, denoting concepts
that are common or important from one point of view
or another for native speakers [10].
CONCLUSION
We can say that the abbreviation demonstrates the
development of intercultural relations, scientific and
technological progress or the progress of society as a
whole, which replenish the vocabulary of the language
with new abbreviated units. In addition, new
abbreviations appear during social changes (wars,
revolutions). All these factors cause the need for mass
nomination of a number of newly emerging
phenomena. Most often, abbreviations are used in
narrowly focused areas to denote long scientific and
military terms.
Thus, we found out that there are various
classifications of abbreviated units, the purpose of
which is to replace any stable linguistic expression in
oral and written speech with a shorter expression
created on the basis of the original lexical unit while
maintaining the general meaning of the content.
Volume 04 Issue 01-2024
46
International Journal Of Literature And Languages
(ISSN
–
2771-2834)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
01
Pages:
37-46
SJIF
I
MPACT
FACTOR
(2021:
5.
705
)
(2022:
5.
705
)
(2023:
6.
997
)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
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