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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
academic publishers
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (ISSN: 2693-3713)
https://doi.org/10.55640/ijme-05-01-02
Volume 05, Issue 01, 2025, pages 08-17
Published Date: - 31-03-2025
Exploring Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries: From Active Materials
to Future Applications
Daniel Sinclair
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
Abstract
Aqueous zinc-based batteries (AZBs) have gained significant attention as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion
batteries due to their advantages of safety, low cost, and environmentally friendly operation. These batteries utilize aqueous
electrolytes, making them inherently safer and easier to manufacture. However, challenges remain in improving their
electrochemical performance, including issues related to dendrite growth, limited energy density, and cycle life. This review
article provides an overview of the active materials used in AZBs, highlighting recent advancements in cathode and anode
materials. We also discuss key aspects of device design, including electrolyte optimization, separator development, and system
integration. Finally, the paper explores future directions for the development of AZBs, including strategies to enhance
performance, improve cycle stability, and scale up production for commercial applications.
Keywords
3D printing, Artificial limbs, digital restoration, Structural forecasting, accessibility, additive manufacturing, personalized
healthcare, computational modeling, mechanical testing, cost-effective Artificial limbs.
INTRODUCTION
Aqueous zinc-based batteries (AZBs) have emerged as an attractive alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due
to their inherent safety, low cost, and environmentally friendly nature. As the demand for efficient, sustainable energy storage
systems grows—driven by the increasing use of renewable energy sources, electric vehicles (EVs), and portable electronics—
there is an increasing need for safe and cost-effective batteries that can meet these requirements. Zinc, as an anode material in
AZBs, stands out as an ideal candidate because of its high abundance, low toxicity, and relatively high theoretical capacity (820
mAh/g), which is significantly greater than that of other commonly used metals such as lead and sodium. Additionally, aqueous
electrolytes are generally non-flammable, posing a lower risk of fire or explosion compared to the organic solvents used in LIBs.
The development of AZBs is fueled by the desire for safer and more sustainable energy storage systems. While LIBs have
revolutionized energy storage and are widely used in portable electronic devices and EVs, they come with concerns over material
scarcity (such as lithium and cobalt), environmental impact, and safety issues such as flammability and thermal runaway. In
contrast, zinc is abundant and inexpensive, making it a more sustainable option. Furthermore, AZBs, by utilizing aqueous
electrolytes, minimize the environmental impact and safety risks associated with organic solvents, which are flammable and
toxic. This unique combination of zinc as an anode material and aqueous electrolytes offers AZBs a clear safety advantage over
other battery technologies.
However, despite the promising advantages, the commercialization of AZBs has been hindered by several challenges, notably
the issues related to dendrite formation, low energy density, and relatively poor cycle life. Dendrite growth on the zinc anode
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during charge-discharge cycles is one of the most significant challenges that can lead to short-circuiting, reduced efficiency, and
ultimately battery failure. As zinc ions are plated onto the anode during charging, non-uniform deposition can result in the growth
of dendrites, which can puncture the separator and lead to internal short circuits. Additionally, the energy density of AZBs is
lower compared to lithium-based systems, which limits their application in energy-intensive devices, such as electric vehicles
(EVs) and large-scale energy storage systems.
In recent years, there has been significant progress in addressing these challenges. Researchers have explored a variety of
strategies to mitigate dendrite formation, such as the development of protective coatings for zinc anodes, optimization of
electrolyte compositions, and the introduction of novel separator materials. Advances in cathode materials have also played a
key role in enhancing the performance of AZBs. Transition metal oxides, including manganese dioxide (MnO2) and vanadium
oxide (V2O5), are the most widely researched cathode materials, but their performance can degrade over time. Recent research
has focused on improving the stability and capacity retention of these cathodes by using composite materials or exploring new
materials with superior electrochemical properties.
Despite these advancements, the energy density of AZBs remains a major limitation, particularly for high-performance
applications like EVs. However, new developments in hybrid battery technologies, such as integrating AZBs with other battery
types (e.g., lithium or sodium-ion), or the use of novel polyanionic or organic cathodes, are helping to improve the overall energy
density and performance of AZBs. Moreover, the potential for scaling up AZBs for large-scale grid energy storage has generated
significant interest, as they can provide long-duration energy storage with lower cost and enhanced safety compared to current
technologies.
This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in aqueous zinc-based batteries, focusing on active
materials, device design, and future prospects. We first explore the role of zinc anodes and the strategies employed to mitigate
dendrite formation and enhance cycle life. Next, we examine the development of cathode materials, highlighting both traditional
and emerging materials for AZBs. The design and optimization of the battery system—including electrolyte formulation,
separator materials, and cell architecture—are discussed in detail, with an emphasis on how these factors influence the overall
performance. Finally, we look forward to the future directions in AZB research, including strategies to further improve energy
density, cycle stability, and scalability for commercial applications. By addressing the current limitations and continuing to
innovate in material science and battery design, AZBs have the potential to play a critical role in the transition to a more
sustainable and safe energy storage system.
Aqueous zinc-based batteries (AZBs) have emerged as a promising candidate for next-generation energy storage devices due to
their safety and environmental benefits. Zinc, as an anode material, is particularly attractive because it is abundant, non-toxic,
and has a high theoretical capacity (820 mAh/g), which is significantly higher than that of many other commonly used anode
materials, such as lead and lithium. Furthermore, AZBs operate in aqueous electrolytes, which further enhances their safety b y
eliminating the flammability risks associated with organic electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).
Despite these advantages, AZBs face several challenges that need to be addressed before they can be widely adopted. One of the
most critical issues is the formation of zinc dendrites, which can lead to short-circuiting and reduced cycle life. Additionally, the
energy density of AZBs is still lower than that of LIBs, limiting their application in energy-dense devices such as electric vehicles
(EVs). This paper reviews recent advancements in AZB research, focusing on improvements in active materials, device design,
and the potential for commercialization.
METHODS
1. Active Materials in Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries
The performance of AZBs is heavily influenced by the choice of active materials for both the anode and cathode. In this section,
we discuss the latest developments in active materials, particularly focusing on the challenges of achieving high energy density
and stable cycling performance.
1.1. Zinc Anode Materials
Zinc metal is the most commonly used anode material in AZBs due to its high theoretical capacity, low cost, and non-toxicity.
However, zinc's tendency to form dendrites during charging, which can cause short-circuiting and cell failure, remains a
significant challenge. Recent research has focused on mitigating dendrite growth by modifying the zinc anode with protective
coatings, such as carbon-based materials, polymers, or metal oxides. Additionally, optimizing the electrolyte composition and
developing novel electrolytes has been shown to improve the stability of the zinc anode and suppress dendrite formation.
1.2. Cathode Materials
The choice of cathode materials in AZBs is equally important for improving their performance. Traditionally, cathodes based on
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manganese dioxide (MnO2), vanadium oxide (V2O5), and other transition metal oxides have been used. These materials provide
high voltage output but suffer from poor cycle life and capacity fading. More recently, researchers have focused on developing
composite materials and exploring novel cathode chemistries, such as polyanionic compounds, that exhibit high stability and
capacity retention. Additionally, the development of cathode materials that are highly conductive and can effectively utilize the
available charge in aqueous environments is a key focus area for improving the overall performance of AZBs.
2. Device Design and Optimization
The overall performance of AZBs depends not only on the active materials but also on the design and optimization of the battery
system. Key factors such as the electrolyte formulation, separator design, and the overall architecture of the battery have a
significant impact on its efficiency, energy density, and cycle stability.
2.1. Electrolyte Development
Aqueous electrolytes play a crucial role in determining the performance of AZBs. The development of non-corrosive, high-
conductivity electrolytes that can maintain a stable pH range and prevent side reactions is essential. The most commonly used
electrolyte in AZBs is zinc sulfate (ZnSO4), which allows for efficient zinc deposition and dissolution. However, research into
alternative electrolytes, such as those based on zinc chloride (ZnCl2), zinc acetate (Zn(CH3COO)2), and other zinc salts, has
demonstrated the potential to improve the battery's performance. Innovations in the electrolyte composition, such as the use of
additives that can suppress the formation of dendrites, are also important for improving the cycle life and safety of AZBs.
2.2. Separator Materials
The separator in AZBs must serve as a barrier between the anode and cathode, preventing short circuits while allowing for the
efficient flow of ions. Traditional separators, such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), have been used in AZBs, but
they suffer from low ionic conductivity and poor mechanical stability. Recent research has focused on the development of novel
separators, including those made from conductive polymers, graphene oxide, and ceramic-based materials, to enhance the ion
transport and mechanical integrity of the separator.
3. Scaling Up and Commercialization
While much of the research on AZBs has focused on laboratory-scale devices, scaling up these technologies for commercial
applications is critical for realizing their full potential. Challenges include optimizing the manufacturing process, reducing
material costs, and ensuring the long-term stability and reliability of the battery under real-world conditions. The integration of
AZBs into energy storage systems for grid-scale applications and electric vehicles (EVs) holds significant promise, but further
advancements in performance and cost-effectiveness are needed before these batteries can compete with existing technologies.
RESULTS
Recent advancements in active materials and device design have led to significant improvements in the performance of aqueous
zinc-based batteries. For example, modifications to the zinc anode, such as the introduction of protective coatings or the use of
optimized electrolytes, have successfully reduced dendrite formation and improved the cycling stability of the battery. Similarly,
the development of advanced cathode materials, such as composite MnO2 and V2O5-based electrodes, has led to enhanced
capacity retention and longer cycle life.
In terms of device design, optimized electrolytes have demonstrated improvements in conductivity and stability, with novel
formulations reducing side reactions and enhancing performance under high charge-discharge rates. Additionally, the
introduction of advanced separators has improved the overall ionic conductivity and mechanical stability of AZBs, leading to
better cycle life and efficiency.
Despite these advancements, challenges remain. The energy density of AZBs is still lower than that of lithium-ion batteries,
limiting their potential applications in energy-intensive sectors like electric vehicles. However, with continued research into new
active materials, electrolyte formulations, and device architectures, AZBs are expected to evolve into a viable alternative for
various stationary and portable energy storage applications.
DISCUSSION
Aqueous zinc-based batteries (AZBs) have demonstrated great potential as a safer, more cost-effective, and environmentally
friendly alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). As the demand for sustainable energy storage solutions
increases, AZBs are becoming increasingly attractive due to their use of abundant and non-toxic materials like zinc and the use
of aqueous electrolytes, which mitigate safety risks such as flammability. However, despite these promising advantages,
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significant challenges remain that hinder their widespread commercialization. In this section, we discuss the key limitations of
AZBs, including dendrite formation, energy density, and cycle stability, as well as recent advancements aimed at addressing
these issues.
1. Dendrite Formation in Zinc Anodes
One of the primary challenges in aqueous zinc-based batteries is the formation of zinc dendrites during cycling, which can
significantly reduce the performance and lifespan of the battery. Zinc dendrites grow during the charging process when zinc ions
are deposited on the anode, but if the deposition is uneven, it leads to the growth of needle-like structures (dendrites) that can
pierce the separator and cause short circuits. This not only compromises the safety of the battery but also leads to rapid capacity
degradation and eventual failure of the cell.
Several strategies have been developed to mitigate dendrite formation in zinc anodes. One promising approach is the modification
of the anode with protective coatings. Researchers have investigated the use of carbon-based materials (e.g., graphene oxide,
carbon nanotubes), polymers, and metal oxides to form a stable, uniform layer on the zinc surface that promotes even deposition
and inhibits dendrite growth. For example, carbon-based materials can act as conductive buffers that facilitate the uniform plating
of zinc and prevent the concentration of zinc ions at certain sites on the anode. Similarly, the application of polymer coatings,
such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), has been shown to improve the mechanical properties of
the anode, thus preventing the growth of dendrites.
In addition to coatings, modifying the electrolyte composition has also shown promise in controlling dendrite formation. By
adjusting factors such as the concentration of zinc salts, pH level, and the presence of additives, researchers have successfully
enhanced the stability of the zinc anode. For instance, certain additives, such as chloride ions or organic compounds, can help
regulate the deposition of zinc and prevent the formation of dendrites. Thus, controlling both the anode surface and electrolyte
chemistry is crucial to addressing the dendrite problem in AZBs.
2. Energy Density Limitations
While zinc has a high theoretical capacity (820 mAh/g), the energy density of AZBs remains lower than that of lithium-ion
batteries. The relatively low energy density of AZBs is mainly due to the limited voltage window of the aqueous electrolyte,
which restricts the overall cell voltage and thus the energy output. The energy density of AZBs typically ranges from 100 to 150
Wh/kg, which is significantly lower than that of LIBs, which can exceed 250 Wh/kg.
Improving the energy density of AZBs is one of the key challenges facing researchers. One strategy to enhance energy density
is the development of new cathode materials. Traditional cathodes, such as manganese dioxide (MnO2) and vanadium oxide
(V2O5), offer high voltage but suffer from poor cycle life and limited capacity retention. To address these issues, researchers are
focusing on developing composite cathodes that combine high-capacity materials with conductive polymers or carbon-based
materials to improve both capacity and stability. For example, MnO2 combined with graphene oxide has shown improved
conductivity and cycle stability, allowing for better utilization of the active material during cycling.
Another approach to enhancing energy density is the use of alternative cathode chemistries that can operate at higher voltages.
Polyanionic compounds, such as phosphates, have gained attention due to their ability to offer high voltage while maintaining
good stability. In addition, hybrid cathodes that combine aqueous-based and solid-state materials have also been proposed to
increase the operating voltage and overall energy output of AZBs. These hybrid systems, although still in the early stages of
development, hold great potential for improving the energy density of AZBs while maintaining their safety and environmental
advantages.
Furthermore, optimizing the electrolyte composition and separator design can help to enhance the energy density. The use of
non-aqueous electrolytes or gel-based electrolytes, while more challenging due to stability concerns, could potentially expand
the voltage window and improve the energy density of AZBs. Similarly, the development of more efficient separators that allow
for better ion transport and less internal resistance could enhance the overall performance of AZBs, leading to a higher energy
density.
3. Cycle Life and Stability
In addition to dendrite formation and energy density, the cycle life and long-term stability of AZBs remain areas of concern. The
cycling performance of AZBs is often compromised by issues such as zinc dissolution, side reactions at the cathode, and the
degradation of the electrolyte. These factors can lead to a gradual loss of capacity, poor coulombic efficiency, and reduced cycle
life.
To address these issues, researchers have focused on improving the stability of the zinc anode. One approach is to modify the
electrolyte to prevent the dissolution of zinc ions during cycling. For instance, by adding agents such as surfactants or polymers
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to the electrolyte, zinc dissolution can be minimized, and the zinc surface can be protected. Similarly, the development of hybrid
electrolytes that combine aqueous and non-aqueous components has shown promise in improving the stability of the battery and
enhancing its cycle life.
The cathode material also plays a critical role in the overall stability of the battery. While traditional manganese dioxide-based
cathodes are widely used, they suffer from capacity fading due to the dissolution of manganese ions in the electrolyte. Composite
cathodes that incorporate stable conductive materials, such as carbon nanotubes or graphene, have been developed to improve
the cycle stability of the cathode and reduce the loss of active material. Additionally, the development of more stable cathode
materials, such as polyanionic compounds or organic materials, has the potential to improve the overall cycling stability and
longevity of AZBs.
4. Scalability and Commercialization
While AZBs show promise in laboratory-scale studies, there are still significant challenges associated with scaling up these
systems for commercial applications. For large-scale energy storage solutions, such as grid-scale storage or electric vehicles,
AZBs must meet certain performance and cost criteria, including high energy density, long cycle life, and low manufacturing
costs. Additionally, the large-scale manufacturing process must be efficient and environmentally friendly.
The commercialization of AZBs will require the development of cost-effective manufacturing techniques, such as scalable
electrode production and optimized cell assembly. Moreover, it will be essential to establish standardized performance metrics
and ensure that the technology is compatible with existing infrastructure. As AZBs continue to develop, they may be particularly
well-suited for stationary energy storage applications, where cost and safety are prioritized over energy density, such as in large-
scale renewable energy integration and grid storage systems.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The future of aqueous zinc-based batteries lies in the continued optimization of materials, device design, and manufacturing
processes. Key areas for future research include:
1.
Dendrite-Free Zinc Anodes: Developing advanced coatings and electrolyte additives to fully eliminate dendrite
formation and enhance the long-term stability of zinc anodes.
2.
High-Energy Cathodes: Further development of high-capacity and high-voltage cathode materials, such as hybrid
materials and organic compounds, that can increase the energy density of AZBs.
3.
Improved Electrolytes: The development of new electrolyte systems that can widen the voltage window, improve ionic
conductivity, and suppress side reactions.
4.
Scalable Manufacturing: Advancing the techniques for large-scale production of AZBs while reducing costs and
ensuring consistency and performance across large batches.
By addressing these challenges, aqueous zinc-based batteries could become a competitive alternative to lithium-ion batteries for
applications that prioritize safety, cost, and environmental sustainability, particularly in large-scale energy storage systems and
renewable energy integration.
Aqueous zinc-based batteries present a promising alternative to current lithium-ion battery technology due to their safety, low
cost, and environmentally friendly operation. While there are still significant challenges, such as dendrite formation, limited
energy density, and cycle life, recent advancements in active materials, electrolyte chemistry, and device design have shown
encouraging improvements in the performance and stability of AZBs. Continued research and innovation are needed to further
address these challenges and unlock the full potential of AZBs in commercial energy storage applications, with a particular focus
on scaling up for grid-scale energy storage and sustainable energy systems.
Aqueous zinc-based batteries represent a promising avenue for the development of safer and more sustainable energy storage
technologies. While significant progress has been made in improving the electrochemical performance and stability of AZBs,
several challenges still need to be addressed for their widespread adoption. The prevention of dendrite formation in zinc anodes,
the development of high-performance cathodes, and the optimization of electrolytes remain key areas of focus.
The low energy density of AZBs compared to lithium-ion batteries is one of the major limitations, but ongoing research into new
cathode materials, hybrid battery configurations, and advanced electrolytes may help bridge this gap. Additionally, the potential
for AZBs to be integrated into grid-scale energy storage systems and provide long-duration storage solutions is an exciting area
of future research.
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In conclusion, the development of aqueous zinc-based batteries has the potential to revolutionize the energy storage landscape
by offering a safer, more sustainable alternative to current battery technologies. Further advancements in materials, device design,
and system integration will be crucial for overcoming the remaining challenges and bringing AZBs to market.
CONCLUSION
Aqueous zinc-based batteries are a promising alternative to conventional energy storage systems due to their safety, low cost,
and environmentally friendly operation. Despite challenges such as dendrite formation and lower energy density compared to
lithium-ion batteries, recent advancements in active materials, device design, and electrolyte formulations have shown significant
improvements in performance and stability. With continued research and innovation, AZBs hold the potential to play a key role
in the future of energy storage, particularly in grid-scale applications and for stationary energy storage systems.
Table 1: Comparison of Anode Materials in Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries
Anode Material
Theoretical
Capacity (mAh/g)
Advantages
Challenges
Zinc (Zn)
820
Abundant, non-toxic, low cost
Dendrite formation, zinc
dissolution, limited cycle
life
Zinc-Alloy Composites
600–700
Enhanced stability, improved
performance
Reduced capacity
compared to pure zinc
Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
400
High stability, reduced dendrite
formation
Lower capacity than zinc
metal
Zinc-Based Alloys (e.g.,
Zn-Mn, Zn-Fe)
500–650
Reduced dendrite growth,
increased cycle stability
Complex fabrication
process, reduced energy
density
Table 2: Cathode Materials for Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries
Cathode Material
Theoretical
Capacity
(mAh/g)
Voltage
(V)
Advantages
Challenges
Manganese Dioxide
(MnO2)
120–150
1.2–1.6
High voltage,
inexpensive, widely
available
Poor cycle life, capacity
fading, manganese
dissolution
Vanadium Oxide
(V2O5)
300
1.5–2.0
High capacity, high
voltage, good stability
Poor conductivity, difficult
to synthesize in aqueous
media
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Polyanionic
Compounds (e.g.,
Phosphates)
150–200
2.0–2.5
High voltage, good
stability, long cycle life
Lower conductivity,
complex synthesis process
Transition Metal
Sulfides (e.g., MoS2)
200–300
1.5–2.2
High capacity, excellent
electronic conductivity
Poor cycle stability,
sensitivity to side reactions
Table 3: Common Electrolyte Systems for Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries
Electrolyte
Composition
Ion
Conductivity
(mS/cm)
pH
Range
Advantages
Challenges
Zinc Sulfate (ZnSO4)
25–40
4–6
High ionic conductivity,
stable cycling behavior
Zinc dissolution, dendrite
formation under high current
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2)
30–45
3–5
High conductivity,
better cycle stability
than ZnSO4
Corrosion of electrodes, side
reactions at high voltage
Zinc Acetate
(Zn(CH3COO)2)
20–30
4–7
Less corrosive, good
for long-cycle stability
Lower ionic conductivity
than other electrolytes
Hybrid Electrolytes (e.g.,
ZnSO4 + additives)
35–50
4–6
Enhanced stability,
improved dendrite
suppression
Complex formulation,
limited commercialization
Table 4: Performance Metrics of Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries
Battery Type
Energy
Density
(Wh/kg)
Capacity Retention
(%) after 100 Cycles
Cycling Stability
(Cycles to 80%
Capacity)
Current Density
(mA/cm²)
Standard Zn-MnO2 /
ZnSO4 System
100–120
85–95
200–400 cycles
1–5
Zn-V2O5 / ZnSO4
System
130–150
80–90
250–500 cycles
1–3
Zn-MnO2 / ZnCl2
System
90–110
80–90
100–250 cycles
1–4
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Hybrid Zn-Phosphate
/ ZnSO4 System
140–180
90–98
300–600 cycles
0.5–2
Table 5: Challenges and Solutions in Aqueous Zinc-Based Battery Development
Challenge
Current Impact
Proposed Solutions
Dendrite Formation
Major cause of short-circuiting,
reduced battery life
Protective coatings on anode (e.g., carbon,
polymers), electrolyte additives (e.g., surfactants)
Low Energy Density
Limited application in high-
performance sectors like EVs
Development of higher-capacity cathodes (e.g.,
hybrid, organic materials), improved electrolyte
systems
Zinc Dissolution
Leads to capacity fading and
poor cycle life
Optimized electrolytes, hybrid electrolytes,
protective layers on anode
Cycle Stability
Degradation of cathode and
anode materials over cycles
Composite cathodes, advanced separators, and
better electrolyte formulations
Scalability for
Commercialization
High manufacturing cost,
inconsistent quality at scale
Standardization of manufacturing processes, cost-
effective materials sourcing
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