Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
УДК 615.8 9
THE IMPACT OF EXCESSIVE SALT INTAKE ON HUMAN HEALTH
PhD,dosent Tuksanova Zebiniso Izatulloevna
Bukhara State Medical Institute named after Abu Ali ibn Sina, Uzbekistan, Bukhara, st. A.
Navoi.
1 Tel: +998 (65) 223-00-50 e-mail: info@bsmi.uz
Abstract.
Salt (sodium chloride) plays an essential role in physiological processes such as
nerve conduction and fluid balance. However, excessive intake has been identified as a
major contributor to various chronic health conditions. The World Health Organization
(WHO) recommends limiting daily salt consumption to no more than 5 grams, yet global
averages exceed 9–12 grams, and in some populations, intake reaches up to 15 grams daily.
Excess sodium increases fluid retention, leading to elevated blood volume and, consequently,
increased blood pressure. Persistent high sodium intake is a key factor in the pathogenesis of
arterial hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy, and renal dysfunction. Furthermore, fluid
retention contributes to peripheral edema, particularly in the lower extremities.
Overburdened kidneys are forced to work harder, accelerating glomerular damage and
raising the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD).
Keywords:
sodium chloride, fluid retention, hypertension, renal filtration, cardiovascular
risk, chronic kidney disease, electrolyte imbalance.
Introduction.
As is well known, the human kidneys carry out a complex and tightly
regulated process of urine formation, which includes the stages of ultrafiltration,
reabsorption, secretion, and concentration. In the first stage—ultrafiltration—under the
influence of effective filtration pressure (P_eff), expressed by the formula: P_gc − (P_bs +
π_gc), about 160–180 liters of primary urine are formed daily [12; p.102]. This primary
urine contains low-molecular-weight substances such as glucose, amino acids, creatinine,
urea, and anions of sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and others. The role of the
vascular-basement membrane and Bowman's capsule is to provide selective filtration, while
the activity of hormones such as vasopressin and natriuretic factor regulates the diameter of
the afferent and efferent arterioles of the glomerulus, thus influencing the filtration rate [12;
p.105]. In the proximal tubules, obligatory reabsorption occurs, which is not hormonally
regulated. Here, glucose, amino acids, proteins, and up to 7/8 of the water volume are
completely reabsorbed. However, urine concentration begins only in the loop of Henle due
to the countercurrent mechanism and continues in the distal tubules [12; p.106].
In the distal segments, facultative reabsorption and electrolyte secretion (including sodium
and potassium) become active. The osmolality of the extracellular fluid plays a crucial role
in regulating cell volume. In conditions such as diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease
(CKD), disturbances in water-salt homeostasis occur, requiring additional correction [16;
p.10]. Hyperosmia, caused by glucose in diabetes or urea in CKD, affects intracellular
osmoregulation differently, despite similar plasma osmolality levels [12; p.104]. Studies
show that the use of natural remedies, such as pomegranate seed oil, has a positive effect on
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
the function of the kidneys, thymus, and spleen in cases of impaired filtration and
osmoregulation [2; p.39], [3; p.165], [4; p.41]. These agents, due to their antioxidant and
membrane-stabilizing properties, help improve the morphofunctional condition of the
kidneys [29; p.58], reduce the toxicity of sodium salts, and prevent inflammatory processes
in the glomerular apparatus [16; p.11]. In certain diseases, such as diabetes mellitus and
CKD, additional therapeutic interventions are required to correct plasma osmolality and
maintain it within strict limits. However, clinical practice often overlooks the different
nature of the substances causing hyperosmia: glucose in diabetes, and urea in CKD. Despite
having the same molal concentration, their effects on cellular osmoregulation differ [12;
pp.104–105].
As previously mentioned, plasma osmolality is one of the most tightly regulated homeostatic
parameters of the div. This is due to the fact that the volume of each cell directly depends
on the osmolality of the extracellular (pericellular) fluid. Under conditions of stable osmotic
membrane permeability and constant intracellular osmolyte content, the total amount of
dissolved substances in the plasma determines the movement of water between
compartments and, consequently, the cell volume [12; p.106]. Cell volume osmoregulation
(cell volumetry) depends on three key factors:
1.
The osmolality of the fluid surrounding the cell,
2.
The osmotic permeability of the plasma membrane,
3.
The total amount of osmotically active substances inside the cell.
In the kidneys, osmotic free water plays an essential role in maintaining water balance. Its
movement is regulated by the osmolality gradient between the cortical and medullary
regions of the kidneys. When water needs to be conserved, the medulla creates a high
osmotic gradient, promoting water reabsorption from the collecting ducts. In the opposite
case—excess water—the gradient decreases, and water is excreted as dilute urine [16; p.10].
To quantitatively assess the kidney’s osmoregulatory function, the following are calculated:
Reabsorption of osmotic free water (TcH₂O):
TcH₂O = COsm − V
Excretion of osmotic free water (CH₂O):
CH₂O = V − COsm
Where V is the urine flow rate (ml/min), and COsm is the osmolar clearance:
COsm
=
(UOsm
×
V)
/
POsm,
where UOsm and POsm are the osmolality of urine and plasma, respectively [12; p.105].
Normally, with increased secretion of vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH), TcH₂O
rises, reaching up to 5 ml/min per 1.73 m² of div surface area, indicating intensive water
reabsorption [16; p.11]. With a water load (2% of div weight), which suppresses
vasopressin production, maximum diuresis in men can reach 14.7 ml/min. Vasopressin
secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus and increases in response to:
Elevated plasma osmolality (dehydration),
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
Decreased circulating blood volume (hemorrhage, hypotension),
Stress (via the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis) [12; p.106].
Once secreted, ADH reaches the kidneys, where it activates receptors in the collecting ducts,
increasing water permeability and enhancing reabsorption. This reduces urine volume and
increases its concentration. Sodium plays a key role in osmoregulation. Plasma sodium
concentration (natremia), as the main extracellular electrolyte, regulates osmotic pressure
and water movement between compartments. An increased sodium concentration causes
water retention, while hyponatremia leads to water loss. Regulation is mediated by:
Vasopressin,
Aldosterone,
The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) [29; p.58].
The normal sodium concentration in plasma is 135–145 mmol/L. Deviations from this range
(hypernatremia, hyponatremia) may be markers of pathologies such as dehydration, adrenal
dysfunction, or chronic kidney failure [16; pp.10–11].
Given the role of the kidneys in regulating water-electrolyte homeostasis, especially in
conditions like CKD, diabetes, and acute dehydration, attention should be paid not only to
the quantitative, but also the qualitative characteristics of the osmolytes that determine
plasma osmolality. In particular, sodium, glucose, and urea differently affect intracellular
and extracellular osmoregulation [12; p.104]. Recent studies have shown that in renal failure,
not only water balance is disturbed, but also the morphology and function of immune and
hematopoietic organs such as the spleen. It has been confirmed that using natural phyto-
remedies, including pomegranate seed oil, helps normalize homeostasis. In experimental
animals with kidney dysfunction, pomegranate seed oil had a positive effect on the
morphofunctional condition of the spleen, indirectly indicating normalization of
osmoregulation and water-salt balance [33]. As noted by M.F. Hikmatova (2022), the
introduction of pomegranate seed oil into the diet of experimental animals produces a
pronounced immunomodulatory effect, reduces signs of intoxication, and stabilizes
metabolic processes. This is likely due to the antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing
properties of the oil's components [31; pp.137–139]. Furthermore, the use of medicinal
plants in treating kidney diseases may play a supportive role in stabilizing electrolyte and
water balance. Under conditions of chronic intoxication or inflammation in the kidneys,
herbal preparations exert a mild diuretic effect and regulate sodium- and potassium-
dependent transport mechanisms [36; pp.427–428]. On the other hand, the treatment
approach should consider not only biochemical parameters but also homeopathic and
historical–philosophical concepts, especially within the framework of Eastern medicine. In
the works of Ibn Sina, as highlighted by M.F. Hikmatova (2022), the influence of "natural
spirits," moisture, and heat on kidney function and overall bodily health is discussed
systematically. These texts describe the kidneys not only as organs responsible for urine
outflow but also for fluid balance regulation, which in modern interpretation corresponds to
osmoregulation [32; p.221]. Additionally, anthropometric and morphophysiological studies
have revealed that the hydration status of the div affects div composition and physical
condition, especially in children and adolescents. As shown in the works of H.M.
Furkatovna (2021), water-salt balance is significant for metabolic adaptation and may serve
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
as a marker of the div's internal osmoregulatory capacity when assessing physical
development and endurance [34; 35].
Methods. The experiment was conducted on 100 rat specimens under vivarium conditions.
The study involved 3-month-old edentulous (toothless) rats. At the initial stage, all animals
underwent a one-week quarantine, after which, excluding cases of somatic or infectious
diseases, they were allowed to follow the standard vivarium regimen with three meals per
day. To study the effect of salt on kidney function, a physiological saline solution of the
following concentration was used in the experimental groups. The experiment was
conducted using the methodology described by Sanders (2004) and Lambers Heerspink,
Navis, and Ritz (2012).
In the observation group, where the expected daily sodium intake was 4 to 5.99 g
(equivalent to 10–15 g of sodium chloride per day), the amount of salt was calculated in
mg/kg of the animal's div weight using the formula: Salt amount (mg/kg) = Total salt
consumed
(mg)
/
Body
weight
(kg)
For example, if a person weighs 70 kg and consumes 7 g of salt per day, the salt amount per
kg
would
be:
7000 mg / 70 kg = 100 mg/kg.
During the experiment, one group of animals received 15 g of salt dissolved in 500 ml of
water daily over a specified period, while the other group received salt in a standard manner.
The results showed that animals consuming higher amounts of salt exhibited elevated blood
pressure and no positive changes in kidney function. Additionally, water retention and
kidney stone formation were observed. This experiment confirms the potential negative
effects of excessive salt intake on kidney function and the development of various disorders.
Therefore, salt intake control is considered an important aspect of maintaining healthy
kidney function. In this study, animals were divided into two groups to examine the
potential impact of salt on kidney health and the possible consequences of excessive dietary
intake:
The first group was the control group, in which the rats were maintained on a
standard diet with normal salt content to provide a baseline for comparison.
The second group received salt water as part of their diet—approximately 12–14 ml
per 100 g of div weight per day. This amount of salt water was administered for one month.
Such intake may lead to effects such as elevated blood pressure and kidney damage due to
water and sodium retention in the div.
Out of all the animals used in the experiment, only one did not complete the study.
Animal Grouping Based on Experimental Design
Groups
Experiment Description Number of Animals
I – Control Group
Standard diet
50
II – Salt Solution Group Received salt solution 50
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
Throughout the experiment, researchers monitored div weight dynamics, the overall
condition, and behavior of the animals. No abnormalities were observed in the general
condition or behavior. At the end of the experiment, the animals were carefully weighed,
and under anesthesia, they were decapitated using obstetric scissors for tissue sampling and
further experimental analysis. The medical-biological assessments were carried out in
accordance with international recommendations for the use of laboratory animals in
scientific research. The study utilized organometric, histological, histomorphometric,
microscopic, and statistical methods. Using these methods, the morphogenesis of the
kidneys was investigated at the organ, tissue, and cellular levels. To process the research
results, statistical tools and data analysis were applied. After removal, the kidneys were
weighed using VLR-200 laboratory scales (2019) with an accuracy of 0.25 mg. The length,
width, and thickness were measured using a caliper with a precision of 0.05 mm. All
measurements were recorded in material collection protocols. The absolute and relative mass
and volume of the kidneys were calculated using a standard empirical coefficient formula
based on sonographic data:
Volume
formula:
V
=
0.523
×
a
×
b
×
c,
where a = length, b = width, and c = thickness of the kidney.
After organometric assessment, the kidneys were preserved in a 10% solution of neutral
formalin. Following fixation, the specimens were immersed in water for one hour, then
processed using a standard protocol: dehydration in ethanol and subsequent embedding in
paraffin blocks. Using the MC-2 microtome, paraffin sections 4–6 μm thick were prepared
and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Van Gieson’s method. The sections were analyzed
morphometrically using an eyepiece micrometer DN-107 T / Model NLSD-307 B (“Nobel,”
China).
Measurements included: Kidney capsules Arterial vessels Proximal and distal tubules Other
structural elements of the organ
Morphometric indicators of kidneys in the control group (3-month-old rats)
Parameter Capsule
Thickness
(µm)
Cortical Layer Thickness
(µm)
Medullary Layer Thickness
(µm)
Location Upper Pole
Hilum
Below Pole
Values
7.93±0.63
10.11±0.55
7.65±0.79
Note: Significant difference compared to the previous study period (P < 0.05)** - P <
0.01*** - P < 0.001
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
When the div needs to retain water, the medullary regions of the kidneys create a high
osmotic gradient, which leads to the retention of osmotically free water and the formation of
concentrated urine. Conversely, when the div needs to eliminate excess water, the
medullary regions reduce the osmotic gradient, promoting the excretion of osmotically free
water and the formation of dilute urine. It has been conclusively proven that consuming
more than 5 g of NaCl per day is a risk factor for the development and progression of
cardiovascular diseases. Epidemiological data have been provided on NaCl consumption in
various countries and regions around the world, along with the challenges of detecting
excessive salt intake. The most successful models and preventive strategies aimed at limiting
salt intake have also been reviewed. The kidneys filter blood and excrete excess sodium and
other substances through urine. However, excessive salt consumption can overload the
kidneys, potentially leading to kidney tissue damage and renal failure. High salt intake may
also contribute to the formation of kidney stones. This is because excess sodium in urine can
increase the concentration of calcium and other minerals, which promotes stone formation.
Sodium control is especially important for people with hypertension or other kidney diseases,
as high salt intake can worsen symptoms and increase the risk of complications.
Additionally, excess salt can impair urinary tract function, increasing the risk of urinary tract
infections (UTIs) and other urogenital disorders. Water retention in Liddle syndrome occurs
due to disrupted sodium reabsorption, accompanied by hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis,
and decreased levels of renin and aldosterone in plasma.
Morphometric Indicators of Kidneys in the Experimental Group
Research
Duration
Capsule
Thickness
(µm)
Cortex
Thickness
(µm)
Medulla
Thickness
(µm)
Location
Upper Pole
Hilum
Below Pole
3 months
9.02±0.82**
12.03±0.85**
8.20±0.80*
Note: significant difference compared to the control group (P < 0.05) ** - P < 0.01
*** - P < 0.001
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
Results. Salt-induced kidney damage can lead to various conditions, such as kidney stones,
renal failure, and other urogenital problems. The primary echanism of salt’s impact on the
kidneys is through increased blood volume. High salt intake causes the div to retain water,
which increases blood volume. This increase puts pressure on blood vessel walls and
burdens the kidneys, which are responsible for filtering blood and removing excess water
and waste. Chronic salt consumption can lead to a range of kidney problems.
First, high blood pressure can damage the renal blood vessels, impairing kidney function.
Second, excess salt promotes kidney stone formation, as elevated sodium levels in the urine
increase the risk of salt crystal buildup, forming kidney stones.
Discussion.
Excessive salt consumption in the diet can have serious negative health
consequences. One of the main harmful effects of high salt intake is its association with
elevated blood pressure. An excess of sodium in the div can cause fluid retention in tissues,
increasing the volume of blood in the vessels and, consequently, the pressure on arterial
walls. High blood pressure raises the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, such as
heart attacks, strokes, and arrhythmias. Excessive salt intake can also have a negative impact
on kidney function. The kidneys play a critical role in regulating the div's sodium levels,
and too much salt can overload and damage them. Elevated sodium levels in the div can
lead to calcium loss through urine, which in turn may increase the risk of developing
osteoporosis and other bone diseases. Some studies have also linked excessive salt
consumption to an increased risk of stomach cancer. Furthermore, high salt intake can result
in fluid retention in tissues, leading to swelling and edema. This may also worsen skin
conditions, causing puffiness and irritation.
Figure
2.
Microscopic
view
of
renal
failure.
Hydropic degeneration and nuclear necrosis are observed in the proximal and distal tubules
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
(1).
Vacuolar
degeneration
and
foci
of
karyolysis
are
also
detected
(2).
Staining: hematoxylin and eosin, magnification 10×10.
Thus, studies show that a diet high in sodium chloride (NaCl) can have negative effects on
human health. Excessive salt intake may lead to various problems, including high blood
pressure, an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke, as well
as a higher risk of kidney diseases and osteoporosis. Therefore, it is important to moderate
salt consumption and opt for healthier alternatives, such as using herbs and spices to
enhance the flavor of food, and increasing the intake of fresh fruits and vegetables. Reducing
salt intake can significantly lower the risk of developing serious diseases and help maintain
overall health.
Conclusion
In conclusion, excessive salt consumption can negatively affect the kidneys, leading to
elevated blood pressure, damage to blood vessels, and the formation of kidney stones.
Therefore, limiting salt intake and drinking an adequate amount of water are essential for
maintaining kidney health.
REFERENCES:
1.
Хикматова, МФ (2021). Взгляд Ибн Сино на опорожнение. Наука и
Образование , 2(9), 72-78.
2.
Хикматова, МФ (2023). ВЛИЯНИЕ МАСЛА ГРАНАТОВЫХ КОСТОЧЕК НА
СЕЛЕЗЕНКУ ПРИ ПОЧЕЧНОЙ НЕДОСТАТОЧНОСТИ. Биология и Интегративный
Медицина , (С), 36-45.
3.
Хикматова, МФ (2023). Влияние масла семян граната на вилочковую железу
при почечной недостаточности. Журнал из Наука-Инновации Исследовать в
Узбекистан , 1(7), 163-171.
4.
Хикматова, МФ (2023). ВЛИЯНИЕ МАСЛА ГРАНАТОВЫХ КОСТОЧЕК НА
СЕЛЕЗЕНКУ ПРИ ПОЧЕЧНОЙ НЕДОСТАТОЧНОСТИ. Биология и Интегративный
Медицина , (С), 36-45.
5.
Хикматова
М. (2021). Легкая атлетика — залог здоровья. Общество и
Инновации 2(8/S), 439-443.
6.
Хикматова, МФ (2022). Лечебные свойства семян граната. Журнал
исследований травм и инвалидности, 1(10), 242-245.
7.
Хикматова, МФ (2023). МАСЛО ГРАНАТОВЫХ КОСТОЧЕК (PUNICA
GRANATUM L.), ИЗУЧЕНИЕ ФИЗИКО-ХИМИЧЕСКИХ СВОЙСТВ. Исследования
Журнал из Травма и Инвалидность Исследования , 2(10), 207-213.
8.
Хикматова, МФ (2022). О методах общего лечения, кровеносные сосуды при
кровотечениях. Исследования Журнал из Травма и Инвалидность Исследования , 1(6),
24-31.
9.
Хикматова МФ (2023, октябрь). ПОЛУЧЕНИЕ МАСЕЛ ИЗ СЕМЯН ГРАНАТА
(PUNICA GRANATUM L.), ИЗУЧЕНИЕ ФИЗИКО-ХИМИЧЕСКИХ СВОЙСТВ. В
Международный конференция на многопрофильный наука ( Т. 1, № 4, стр . 16-19).
10.
Хикматова, МФ (2022). Симптомы болезней сердца и общие методы лечения в
учении Ибн Сина . Място Пршишлосци , 25, 221-222.
Vo
lu
m
e
5,
Ju
ne
,2
02
5
,
M
ED
IC
AL
SC
IE
N
CE
S.
IM
PA
CT
FA
CT
OR
:7
,8
9
11.
Фуркатовна , Х. М. (2023). Симптомы болезней сердца и общие методы
лечения в учении Ибн Сина .
12.
Тешаев, Ш. Ж., Хамдамова, М. Т., Хикматова , М. Ф. (2024, февраль) .
СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ
МЕТОДЫ
ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ
ДИАГНОСТИКИ
ЗАБОЛЕВАНИЙ ПОЧЕК: ДИАГНОСТИКА НАРУШЕНИЙ ВОДНО-СОЛЕВОГО
ГОМЕОСТАЗА. В Международный конференция на многопрофильный наука ( Т. 2,
№ 2, стр . 101-109).
13.
Хикматова, МФ (2022). Чай — лечебное и профилактическое средство для
желудка. Центральный азиатский Журнал из Медицинский и Естественный Наука ,
3(6), 12-14.
14.
Хикматова, М.Ф., Хамдамова, М.Т. (2021). Морфометрические особенности
антропометрических показателей подростков, проживающих в городе Бухаре,
занимающихся
легкой
атлетикой.
ACADEMICIA:
An
Международный
Многопрофильный Исследовать Журнал , 11(9), 492-495.
15.
Хикматова, М.Ф., Хамдамова, М.Т. (2021). Исследование морфометрических
особенностей антропометрических показателей подростков, проживающих в городе
Бухаре, занимающихся легкой атлетикой. Азиатский Журнал из Многомерный
Исследования , 10(9), 215-217.
