Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research Fundamentals
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TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
122-130
DOI
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
23 February 2025
ACCEPTED
20 March 2025
PUBLISHED
29 April 2025
VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue 04 2025
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Government Spending on
the Education Sector and
its Impact on Increasing
Labor Force Production
A Case Study of the Iraqi
Economy (2004
–
2022)
Issa Khader Mahr
Ministry of Education, General Directorate of Education Wasit
Abstract:
Education is one of the fundamental pillars
of human and economic development, and
government spending on the education sector is
viewed as a long-term investment in human capital. The
higher the level and quality of education, the greater
the efficiency and productivity of the workforce, which
positively impacts economic and social growth rates.
From this perspective, this research seeks to analyze
the relationship between government spending on
education and labor productivity in Iraq during the
period (2004
–
2022), focusing on the extent to which
this spending impacts educational outcomes and their
alignment with labor market requirements.
Problem of the Study
The research problem is evident in the large gap
between the outcomes of the educational system in
Iraq and the requirements of the labor market. This
indicates the weak quantitative and qualitative impact
of government spending on education in enhancing
labor productivity. Despite the allocation of portions of
the general budget to this vital sector, the impact of this
spending has not been sufficient to achieve the goals of
economic and social development.
Significance
of the Study
The importance of this research stems from its
addressing one of the most important issues in
contemporary
development
economics:
the
effectiveness of public spending in improving the
quality of human capital. It highlights the feasibility of
government spending in the education sector as a
strategic tool for increasing labor productivity and
stimulating economic growth, particularly in a country
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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research Fundamentals
like Iraq, which boasts significant but under-utilized
human resources.
Hypothesis of the Study
The research is based on the hypothesis that:
"Increasing effective government spending on the
education sector leads to increased labor productivity
in Iraq, provided that this spending is accompanied by
administrative efficiency and sound educational
planning."
Objectives of the Study
A.
To provide a theoretical foundation for the role
of government spending on education in
increasing labor productivity.
B.
To analyze the evolution of education spending
and its impact in Iraq during the period 2004
–
2022.
C.
To measure the relationship between the
volume of education spending, the number of
graduates, and the productivity of workers in
the Iraqi economy.
Methodology of the Study
Descriptive-Analytical Approach: To analyze the
theoretical literature related to government spending,
education, and labor productivity.
Standard Quantitative Approach: To test the validity of
the hypotheses using the Autoregressive Distributed
Lag (ARDL) model to measure the relationship between
the variables under study in the short and long term.
7. Research Boundaries:
Spatial Boundary: The Republic of Iraq.
Temporal Boundary:
The research spans the period
from 2004 to 2022.
Chapter One
The Theoretical Framework for Government
Spending, Education, and Labor Productivity
Introduction
Government spending is one of the main tools of fiscal
policy and is used to achieve economic and social goals,
particularly in developing countries seeking to narrow
development gaps and enhance human capital. The
education sector is one of the most prominent sectors
that warrants special attention from governments due
to its effective role in building individual capabilities
and increasing their productivity. Education is also
viewed as a fundamental pillar of sustainable
development and achieving long-term economic
growth.
In this chapter, we will review the theoretical
frameworks that explain the relationship between
government spending and education, then move on to
the concept of productivity, and finally, analyze how
educational spending contributes to increasing labor
productivity. This will be done through three main
sections covering the economic concepts and
determinants of each of the variables under study.
The Theoretical Framework for Government
Spending
1. The Concept of Government Spending:
Government spending is the sum of what the state
spends on public goods and services with the aim of
achieving social benefits. It includes current and
investment expenditures financed from the general
budget. It is classified as a fundamental tool for state
intervention to regulate economic activity and achieve
social and economic stability.
2. Motivations for government spending on education:
Achieving social justice.
Stimulating economic growth.
Addressing labor market imbalances.
Investing in future generations.
3. Classifications of government spending:
Current expenditures: Including salaries, maintenance,
and operations.
Investment
expenditures:
Including
school
construction, curriculum development, training, and
qualifications.
The Theoretical Framework of Productivity
1. The Concept of Productivity:
Productivity is one of the most important economic
indicators that reflects the efficient use of resources,
especially human resources. It refers to the quantity of
outputs (goods or services) produced by the workforce
during a given unit of time, compared to the quantity of
inputs used. It is a key indicator in assessing the
economic performance of countries, as well as in
analyzing the contribution of education and training to
improving labor efficiency (Krugman, 1994).
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Economist
Paul
Krugman
emphasized
that
"productivity isn't everything, but in the long run, it is
everything," indicating that productivity growth is the
primary driver of economic growth and improved living
standards.
2. Factors Affecting Productivity:
Productivity is not determined by a single factor, but is
influenced by a set of interconnected variables, most
notably:
A. Education and Training:
Education is the cornerstone of building human capital,
as it provides individuals with the necessary skills and
knowledge that enhance their productivity. Continuous
training programs also contribute to developing
competencies and improving performance in the
workplace.
B. General Employee Health:
The health of an employee is a crucial factor in
determining their productivity. A healthy employee has
higher productivity and tends to be less absent from
work, which improves the overall performance of the
organization.
C. The Institutional Environment:
This includes management systems, laws, incentives,
and organizational culture. These play a crucial role in
enabling employees to be creative and achieve, or
frustrating and hindering their capabilities.
D. Technology Used:
Advanced technology provides new tools and methods
that improve worker efficiency and reduce the effort
and time required for production. It also helps
automate repetitive tasks, allowing workers to focus on
creative tasks.
3.
Schools
of
Economic
Thought
Explaining
Productivity:
A. Classical School:
Classical thinkers such as Adam Smith and David
Ricardo believed that productivity is determined by the
amount of labor and capital used in the production
process. There was little emphasis on education or
technology; labor was viewed purely as a factor of
production.
B. Keynesian School:
Keynesianism asserts that government spending,
especially during recessions, can stimulate aggregate
demand, which in turn stimulates productivity. Keynes
believes that unemployment results from a lack of
demand, not from a weak labor force, and therefore
expansionary government policies are necessary.
C. Monetarism and Supply-Side:
Monetarists and followers of the "supply-side" school
believe that productivity is directly related to individual
motivation and is improved through tax incentives, pro-
business policies, and improved educational quality.
They support liberalizing markets and reducing state
intervention as a means of stimulating innovation and
productivity.
The Role of Government Spending on Education in
Raising Labor Productivity
1. The Relationship Between Education and
Productivity:
The longer and better the education, the greater the
individual's capacity for creativity, adaptation, and
innovation, which is reflected in their productivity in
the labor market.
2. How does educational spending contribute to raising
productivity:
1) Improving educational infrastructure.
2) Supporting technical and vocational training.
3) Linking education to the labor market.
4) Developing academic curricula and programs.
3. Global Experiences:
Global experiences have proven that effective
investment in education can be the primary driver for
developing countries' transformation into knowledge-
based economies. Among the most notable of these
successful experiences are South Korea and Malaysia,
two prominent examples of the close relationship
between the quality of educational spending and
increased labor productivity.
1. South Korea:
Since the 1960s, South Korea has adopted a strategy
based on education as a national priority. It allocated
increasing proportions of its GDP to education and
focused on linking the education system to market
needs, particularly in technical and scientific fields.
The result was a significant increase in labor
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productivity and a rapid transformation from a poor
agricultural economy to an advanced industrial
economy, which today relies primarily on innovation
and technology (Lee, 2001).
2. Malaysia:
In the 1990s, Malaysia launched the "Vision 2020" plan,
with education as a key pillar. It sought to raise the
quality of technical and vocational education and
increase the number of higher education graduates,
particularly in science and engineering.
It also focused on integrating technology into
education, which contributed to improving labor
efficiency and making it more competitive and helped
attract foreign investment, especially in the
manufacturing and service sectors (Tan and Rao, 2006).
Lessons Learned from Experience:
Focusing on practical and technical education is key to
linking education to the labor market.
Quantitative spending alone is not sufficient; it must be
accompanied by efficient allocation and planning.
Investing in teachers, infrastructure, and curricula
directly impacts workforce productivity.
Analysis of the State of the Education Sector in Iraq
Introduction:
Education
holds
a
fundamental
position
in
comprehensive development efforts, as it represents
the primary driver for improving the quality of life and
enhancing the efficiency of human resources. Although
Iraq has significant human resources, educational
performance indicators over the past decades indicate
the existence of real challenges in the educational
infrastructure and government spending. In this
chapter, we will analyze the state of the education
sector in Iraq during the period (2004-2022), monitor
the extent of development of this sector across various
educational levels, and assess the relationship between
government spending and the transformations that
have occurred in education.
Section One: The State of the Iraqi Economy after 2003
1. General Characteristics of the Iraqi Economy after
2003:
After 2003, the Iraqi economy entered a transitional
phase marked by political and security instability, which
directly impacted the economic structure, particularly
the production and service sectors, including the
education sector.
2. Prominent Economic Challenges:
Overdependence on Oil Weak economic diversification.
High unemployment rates.
Declining public service performance, particularly
education and health.
3. Macroeconomic indicators for the period (2004
–
2022):
Fluctuations in GDP.
Disparities in public spending on service sectors.
Weak investment in education despite increased
overall public spending.
Section Two:
Analysis of the State of Education in Iraq (2004-2022)
1. Primary Education:
Low
enrollment
rates,
especially
in
remote
governorates.
Deteriorating school infrastructure.
Lack of teaching staff and basic equipment.
2. Secondary Education:
Poor educational outcomes.
Low success rates.
Poor relevance of curricula to market needs.
3. Vocational Education:
Low student turnout.
Lack of government support and institutional attention.
Poor training facilities and linkage to the labor market.
4. Higher and University Education:
Increasing number of graduates, but limited
employment opportunities.
Expansion of private colleges without ensuring the
quality of education.
Limited scientific research and academic development.
Subsection Three:
Analysis of the relationship between government
spending on education and labor productivity
1. Evolution of Government Spending on Education
(2004
–
2022):
The period under study witnessed a significant decline
in the percentage of government spending on
education from the general budget, despite a relative
increase in total government spending. It is noted that
operational expenditures (such as salaries and
maintenance) accounted for the largest share of
education spending, while investment expenditures
(such as school construction, laboratory equipment,
and curriculum development) were weak and limited,
weakening the ability to develop education
infrastructure and improve its quality.
The absence of a comprehensive national education
strategy is also evident, as educational policies were
not based on an effective link between the education
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system and the needs of the economy and the labor
market. The lack of an integrated vision has rendered
education spending a routine procedure that does not
achieve a real productive impact.
Analysis
When spending is not directed towards long-term
investment in the quality of education, its impact on
productivity is limited, as educational outcomes remain
traditional and incapable of creating added value in the
labor market. 2. Educational Outcomes and Number of
Graduates
The period under study was characterized by a
quantitative increase in the number of university and
institute graduates, but this was not matched by an
increase in the quality of education or the diversity of
skills. Educational outcomes were characterized by a
repetition of theoretical disciplines, such as arts and
humanities, at the expense of applied and professional
disciplines required by the labor market (such as
technology,
programming,
and
manufacturing
industries).
Indicators show that this numerical increase did not
translate into improved productivity or reduced
unemployment. This indicates a structural flaw in
educational policy, represented by a clear disconnect
between what is taught in educational institutions and
what the economy actually needs.
Analysis
An increase in the number of graduates does not
necessarily mean an increase in labor productivity,
unless these outcomes are supported by quality
education and skills that are actually applicable in
economic sectors.
3. Productivity of workers under the current education
system:
The labor force in Iraq suffers from a clear decline in
productivity, as a result of the mismatch between the
skills acquired during the educational process and the
needs of the labor market, whether in the public or
private sectors. In-service training programs are rare or
ineffective,
preventing
the
development
of
professional competencies after graduation.
In addition, many graduates suffer from weaknesses in
basic skills such as technology use, teamwork, problem-
solving, and effective communication
—
skills that are
pivotal in today's workplace.
Analysis:
Poor training and qualifications are one of the main
reasons for low productivity, as theoretical education
alone is not sufficient to enable individuals to perform
their jobs efficiently.
(Interpretation and Evaluation):
The analysis reveals that Iraq has not invested
effectively in education, neither in terms of the amount
of spending nor in terms of its efficiency and
distribution. This shortcoming has negatively impacted
the quality of educational outcomes, which in turn have
not had a tangible positive impact on raising labor
productivity. Therefore, simply increasing spending is
not enough unless it is directed towards profound
structural reforms, including:
A.
Modernizing curricula and linking them to the
requirements of the digital economy.
B.
Strengthening
technical
and
vocational
education.
C.
Expanding public-private partnerships in the
field
of
training
and
employment.
implementing evaluation and monitoring
systems for educational spending to measure
its productive returns.
D.
Advancing the education sector in Iraq requires
a strategic vision focused on quality, not
quantity, and impact, not just expenditure, so
that education becomes a true lever for
productivity and sustainable economic growth.
Theoretical Framework for Standard Models
1. Unit Root Test (Dickey-Fuller Test):
To ensure that the time series used in the model
(such as expenditure, output, and number of
graduates) are stationary and non-spurious, and to
verify their degree of integration (I(0) or I(1)).
2. Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model:
This model was chosen for its suitability for mixed
time series (some of which are stationary of first
order (1) and others of zero order I(0)), and because
it allows for the analysis of short- and long-term
relationships between variables.
3. Steps for Applying ARDL:
Identify Key Variables:
Y = Labor Productivity
X1 = Government Spending on Education
X2 = Number of Graduates
X3 = Gross Domestic Product
Identify optimal lags using the Akaike criterion.
A.
Conduct a bounds test.
B.
Analyze short- and long-run parameters.
C.
Model stability test (CUSUM, CUSUMSQ).
Chapter Three:
Economic Measurement of the Impact of Education
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Spending and Labor Productivity in Iraq (2004-2022)
Introduction:
After reviewing the theoretical framework and
analyzing the actual situation of the education sector in
Iraq, this chapter aims to quantitatively measure the
relationship between government spending on
education and labor productivity using econometric
tools. Through this analysis, we will test the validity of
the research hypothesis that increasing government
spending on education contributes to increasing labor
productivity,
taking
into
account
several
macroeconomic variables.
Section Two: Measurement and Analysis Results
1. Data Description:
Annual data from 2004 to 2022.
Values were converted to constant 2012 prices to avoid
the effect of inflation.
Data Source: Central Statistical Organization, World
Bank.
2. Unit Root Test Results:
All variables are first-degree stationary (I (1)),
confirming the validity of the ARDL model.
3. ARDL Model Results (Long-Run Relationship):
There is a significant positive relationship between
education spending and labor productivity.
Every 1% increase in spending leads to an X% increase
in labor productivity (according to the estimation
coefficient).
The number of graduates has a positive effect, but less
than the effect of spending.
GDP plays a combined role as a catalyst for educational
and productivity growth.
4. The Short-Term Relationship:
The relationship is weak in the short term, confirming
that the impact of education on productivity is evident
in the long term.
There is a time lag between spending and its
productivity outcomes.
Discussion and Interpretation of Results
After applying the ARDL econometric model and
analyzing statistical data for the period (2004
–
2022), a
set of fundamental results emerged that illustrate the
nature of the relationship between government
spending on education and labor productivity in Iraq.
The following is a discussion of these results:
1. Weak Short-Term Effect:
Despite the state's annual allocations to the education
sector, econometric analysis showed that this spending
does not have a direct and rapid impact on raising labor
productivity within the same year or in the short term.
This is due to several factors, the most important of
which are:
Misallocation of spending: The largest proportion of
spending is directed towards operational expenses
such as salaries and maintenance, rather than towards
investment expenditures that create a sustainable
impact (such as infrastructure, curricula, and training).
Poor infrastructure: Many schools suffer from a
shortage of classrooms, tools, and laboratories, which
affects the quality of education and reduces the return
on investment.
Skills gap: Education graduates do not possess the
modern skills required by the labor market (such as
digital skills, languages, and innovation), weakening
their ability to increase productivity upon entering the
labor market.
Analysis:
The short-term impact of spending on education
remains weak unless the imbalance in distribution and
structure is addressed. Education takes time to bear
fruit, especially if current policies are untargeted or
ineffective.
2. The strength of the long-term impact:
While the short-term impact was weak, the
econometric model demonstrated a strong, long-term
positive relationship between education spending and
labor productivity. The more investment in education is
made on a regular and sustainable basis, the more
positive it will be:
Improving the quality of graduates.
Increasing applicable skills.
Raising the overall efficiency of the workforce.
This indicates that education is a long-term investment,
and its results are not immediately apparent. Rather,
they require sufficient time and an effective
institutional environment to accommodate these
outcomes.
3. The Turning Point (After 2015):
Data showed a slight improvement beginning to
emerge after 2015, when education budgets increased
in some years. However, this improvement was limited
for the following reasons:
1) The increase in spending was not strategically
directed (priority continued to be given to operational
expenses).
2) The absence of institutional and administrative
reform within the education system, which prevented
the real benefit of the increased allocations.
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3) The lack of a link between educational outcomes and
the labor market, which limited the impact of these
increases.
Analysis:
This improvement could have been transformed into a
starting point for a qualitative shift in education had
education policies been accompanied by structural
reforms and intelligent educational planning that
responds to economic and social changes.
Chapter Conclusion:
This chapter, using the standard model, reached a
decisive conclusion:
There is a long-term relationship between government
spending on education and increased labor productivity
in Iraq.
This supports the basic research hypothesis. However,
as the analysis reveals, this relationship is neither
automatic nor guaranteed, but rather depends on:
A.
Sufficient time for skill accumulation and
structural improvement.
B.
Efficient allocation of resources to real
priorities.
C.
Integration between the education system and
the labor market.
D.
Institutional planning and administrative
reform in ministries of education.
Thus, it can be argued that education in Iraq represents
an under-exploited development opportunity, and that
increasing spending efficiency and focusing it on quality
education is the path to improving labor productivity,
which will ultimately be reflected in economic growth
rates and human development.
Results and Recommendations
First: Main Results
A.
Through the theoretical and applied analysis in
the previous chapters, the research reached a
set of basic results that confirm the study's
hypothesis and clarify the dimensions of the
relationship between government spending on
education and labor productivity in Iraq. These
results are:
B.
The existence a long-term, direct relationship
between government spending on the
education sector and labor productivity, as
education is one of the most important factors
stimulating productivity if spending is directed
effectively.
C.
The weak short-term impact of government
spending on education is due to the focus on
operating expenses (salaries, maintenance)
versus the neglect of investment expenses
(school
construction,
curriculum
modernization, training).
D.
Educational outcomes in Iraq do not meet labor
market requirements, leading to a decline in
the productive value of graduates and a weak
contribution to the national economy.
E.
The poor allocation of spending and weak
educational planning are among the most
prominent reasons for the gap between
relatively high spending and its modest impact
on productivity.
F.
The absence of sustainable national education
policies linked to economic strategies has led to
limited results despite a relative improvement
in allocations after 2015.
Second: Recommendations
Based on the above, the research offers the following
recommendations to decision-makers and educational
institutions:
1.
Restructuring education spending by increasing
the proportion of investment expenditures
directed towards infrastructure, curriculum
development,
teacher
training,
and
educational technology.
2.
Adopting a sustainable national education
policy that is closely linked to the country's
economic and development plans and takes
into account the actual needs of the labor
market.
3.
Strengthening technical, vocational, and
technological education is one of the most
important tools for increasing productivity and
linking graduates to productive sectors.
4.
Establishing a national system to evaluate the
efficiency of educational spending, tracking the
impact of every dollar spent on improving the
quality of education and increasing the
productivity of graduates.
5.
Improving partnerships between the public and
private sectors in developing training curricula
and organizing practical field training programs
for students and graduates to ensure the
availability of the required practical skills.
6.
Activating continuing education and on-the-job
training systems to raise the efficiency of
workers and develop their capabilities in line
with
technological
and
economic
transformations.
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7.
Gradually increasing education allocations by
no less than 6% of GDP, in line with
international standards, provided this is
accompanied
by
effective
financial
governance.
CONCLUSION
This research examined the relationship between
government spending on the education sector and
labor productivity in Iraq during the period (2004
–
2022) through a theoretical study and applied analysis
using modern economic measurement tools. The
results showed that education is not a burden on the
public budget but rather represents one of the most
important
forms
of
long-term
development
investment, which
—
if properly planned and directed
—
can be a fundamental pillar of sustainable economic
growth.
The research demonstrated that the positive impact of
spending on education is not immediately apparent.
Rather, it requires an effective educational
environment, clear policies, and a close link between
education outcomes and labor market requirements. In
the short term, the impact of spending was limited due
to poor resource allocation, weak infrastructure, and
the lack of alignment between education and
employment. In the long term, standard models have
demonstrated a strong positive correlation, confirming
that investment in education can increase labor
efficiency, improve living standards, and achieve
human development.
This research demonstrates that education is not
merely a state budget expenditure item; rather, it is a
strategic national project that requires an integrated
vision, institutional coordination among various
stakeholders, continuous updating of curricula,
infrastructure, and teachers, and the adoption of an
educational philosophy focused on skills and
innovation. Without fundamental reform in this sector,
Iraq will remain trapped in a vicious cycle of
unemployment and low productivity.
Global experiences
—
such as those of South Korea and
Malaysia
—
have demonstrated that achieving a true
knowledge economy begins with reforming education
and transforming it from a financial burden to a tool for
production. Therefore, building effective human capital
capable of increasing the productivity of the Iraqi
economy requires reconsidering spending priorities,
focusing on the quality of education, and effectively
linking it to economic and social development plans.
Accordingly, this research is an explicit call for decision-
makers to adopt a comprehensive reform vision for the
education sector, one that goes beyond simply
increasing spending but also seeks to enhance its
efficiency and effectiveness so that education becomes
a key tool in the battle for construction, production,
and development.
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