3-SHO‘BA. "ARXITEKTURA YODGORLIKLARI VA MADANIY MEROS
OBYEKTLARINI SAQLASH HAMDA QAYTA TIKLASH MUAMMOLARI"
TYPOLOGICAL FEATURES AND DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL TRADITIONS IN
THE ARCHITECTURE OF MEDRESSAH OF CENTRAL ASIA
ALIYEVA ROBIYABONU ALISHER KIZI master,
Tashkent International Kimyo University
(Master's department "Architecture of buildings and structures", department of "Architecture and urban
planning”)
e-mail:
Abstract.
This article discusses the specifics of the design solutions of the madrasah of the XVIII-XX centuries
in the architectural context. The typology and variations of madrasas, which have been preserved and are also used in
the construction of modern madrasahs, Islamic educational centers, the differences and features of the Bukhara, Khiva
and Kokand architectural schools have been studied. Regularities of formation and development of local architectural
schools are revealed. In particular, the article touches upon the issue of the influence of the historical, economic and
political development of the region on the formation of local religious architecture in Uzbekistan.
Annotatsiya.
Ushbu maqolada XVIII-XX asrlardagi madrasaning me’morchilik kontekstidagi loyihaviy
qarorlarining o‘ziga xosligi muhokama qilingan bo’lib. Hozirgi zamon madrasalari, islom ma’rifiy markazlari
qurilishida ham saqlanib qolgan va qo‘llanilayotgan madrasalarning tipologiyasi va xilma-xilligi, Buxoro, Xiva,
Qo‘qon me’morchilik maktablarinig farqlari va o’ziga xos xususiyatlari o‘rganilgan. Mahalliy arxitektura
maktablarining shakllanishi va rivojlanishi qonuniyatlari ochib berilgan. Xususan, maqolada mintaqaning tarixiy,
iqtisodiy va siyosiy rivojlanishining O‘zbekistonda mahalliy diniy bino va inshoatlar arxitekturasining shakllanishiga
ta’siri masalasi ko‘rib chiqilgan.
Аннотация.
В данной статье рассмотрены специфика проектных решений медресе XVIII-ХХ веков в
архитектурном контексте. Изучена типология и вариации медресе, которые сохранились и применяются
также и при постройке современных медресе, учебных исламских центров, отличия и особенности бухарской,
хивинской и кокандской архитектурных школ. Выявлены закономерности формирования и развития местных
архитектурных школ. В том числе в статье затрагиваются вопрос влияния исторического, экономического и
политического развития региона на формирование местной культовой архитектуры в Узбекистане.
Keywords:
Architectural schools of Bukhara, Khiva and Kokan, construction of religious buildings, madrasa,
architecture, typology of religious buildings.
Kalit so‘zlar:
Buxoro, Xiva va Qo‘qon me’morchilik maktablari, diniy inshoatlar qurilishi, madrasa, diniy
inshoatlar me’morchilik, tipologiyasi
Ключевые слова:
бухарская, хивинская и кокандская архитектурные школы, культовое строительство,
медресе, культовая архитектура, типология.
Introduction
In recent years, it has become possible to conduct more in-depth and comprehensive studies of
educational institutions, including spiritual ones, which have a unique role in the life of each person,
as well as in his formation as an individual.
The process of emergence, formation and development
of religious educational institutions, distinguished by the originality of teaching methods, requires the
creation of special conditions for the organization of their activities. It should be noted that education
is the basis of the progress of society, the foundation of spirituality, cultural development and
education of a comprehensively developed young generation. Speaking about the role of education
in the development of the country, we must not forget the historical experience that has developed in
Uzbekistan. At the present stage, the influence of globalization processes on the modification of
religious knowledge, the spread of universal teachings that captivate hundreds of millions of people
- all this indicates that religion and religious institutions have their place in the modern world.
Material and Methods
At the present stage, the problems of creating centers of religious education and culture are
relevant, knowledge on the design of such buildings is expanding. An analysis of the typology, design
and construction features of madrasahs built in the countries of Central Asia testifies to their relevance
as centers of modern spiritual and cultural development of modern society. Of particular relevance
and undoubted theoretical and practical significance are still occupied by the issues of the peculiarities
of the organization and construction of madrassas in Central Asia, which have attracted the attention
of researchers in different eras. We can also state the fact that the architecture of madrasahs still
remains poorly understood.
The goal is to determine the specifics of madrasahs of the Central Asian region (period of the
18th-20th centuries), in the general architectural context. To study the patterns of formation and
development of local architectural schools in the countries of Central Asia.
Madrasahs played an important role in training scientists and creative figures who made a
significant contribution to the development of culture, science and art. For example, the Ulugbek
madrasah in Samarkand served as a kind of academy for the ulema of that era. From the history of
the development of Central Asian architecture it is known that madrasahs were included in the main
types of religious buildings. A universally accepted spatial planning scheme was observed with a
closed courtyard surrounded by hujras (living premises), an entrance domed group, on either side of
which mosque premises and darskhanas (educational premises) are symmetrically located, also
covered with domes.
The methodology of this article uses methods of analysis and synthesis, scientific
abstraction, generalization, and comparative theoretical interpretation. In addition, the scientific basis
of the article is made up of international standards, information from research by scientists in
domestic and foreign scientific publications.
Discussion
Local architects took this traditional “basic” form as a basis and introduced features of local
architecture into it, so the Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand architects of the 19th century stood out, who
developed their own types and variations of madrassas, which have been preserved and are also used
in the construction of modern madrassas, Islamic training centers.
The primary goal is to consider not only the typology of madrasah monuments, but also the
formation of comparative information in the context of the chronological development of local
traditions in madrasah architecture.
In many studies devoted to the history of architecture, there is a widespread stereotype about
the complete interruption of the architectural tradition in the construction of madrassas, the so-called
“late period,” which entered into a state of decline and was never able to fully recover in the future
[Маньковская Л., 2]. However, in other sources, one can find an analysis of monuments of the 18th-
20th centuries, which prove the opposite.
A larger number of ancient monuments of the 10th-17th centuries were preserved in Bukhara,
construction in Khiva and Kokand was carried out anew. It should be noted that the Bukhara school
practically did not focus on the heritage of local architecture and architecture. Of the few monuments
of the 18th-19th centuries, only the Ernazar Elchi madrasah (1794–1795) fully complies with the
traditional planning scheme and has an impressive scale [Пугаченкова Г., 4].
In Bukhara, already at the beginning of the 19th century, there was an increase in the
construction of local madrasahs. The most interesting examples are two asymmetrical madrassas:
Khalifa Khudoydod (1777) and Chor-Minar (1807). Their main feature is the presence in the
courtyard of a separate small mosque with an open iwan; this solution is not found in later Bukhara
buildings.
Madrasahs of this period are characterized by local mosques with columned «Г»-shaped iwans.
Today, at least three monuments of this type are known: the Poyi Oston Mosque, Kemuthagaron,
Khoja Bulgor. Thus, we can conclude that at the beginning of the 19th century, architects in Bukhara
were guided not so much by the “classical” monumental tradition, but by more popular forms of
religious architecture, which included summer iwan mosques.
At this time, large “classical” madrasahs are being built in Khiva. These are symmetrical in
plan two-story baked brick madrasahs with a closed courtyard surrounded by hudjras. Their facades
are cut through with pointed deep loggia niches and flanked by guldasta towers. The decorative
system clearly shows local features that had finally taken shape by this time. Preference was given to
crushed tile decor. The peshtaki and the space above the niches of the hujras were covered with white
and blue majolica using climbing plant motifs. Also, peshtaki were often decorated with girikh with
“stars”. To decorate the guldasta towers, a geometric pattern was used: the dome ends were covered
with solid green majolica, and a belt of white-green diamond-shaped ornament was placed under
them. For example, the Khiva madrasah Kutlug Murad-inak (1804–1812) was maintained in the best
traditions of the ceremonial khan Khiva architecture [Маньковская Л., 3].
Unlike Bukhara, small local and asymmetrical madrasahs were not built in Khiva, and the
inclusion of iwan mosques in the madrasah was not practiced in principle. The design of the open
columned iwan did not gain popularity in Khorezm; examples of its use are extremely few and did
not in any way influence the architecture of the madrasah (summer mosque in Kunya-Arka, 1820s;
Ak-mosque, 1838-1842; Nurullabai palace, 1893-1914).
In Kokand, which began to be rebuilt at this time, great attention was also paid to the
construction of large madrasahs. In 1799, the Narbuta-biy madrasah was built, which became the first
Kokand madrasah; followed by the construction of the Ming Oim madrasah in 1802, which laid the
foundation for the city square of Chorsu. Although both buildings were monumental, they were not
distinguished by the richness of their external decoration, and the majolica decoration of the facade
of Narbuta-biy was added at the end of the 20th century.
As in Bukhara, at the beginning of the 19th century there was active construction of mosques
with open iwans in the Kokand Khanate (Khatun Mosque, Tashkent, 1754; Sari-Mazor Mosque, Ura-
Tube; Juma Mosque, Kokand, 1815, etc.). But if this type did not gain much popularity in Bukhara,
it occupied a leading place in Kokand architecture throughout the 19th century [Пугаченкова Г, 1].
Namely, the inclusion of individual iwan mosques in the layout of the madrasah became a
recognizable local feature in Kokand (Kamol-Kazi madrasah, Kokand, 1830–1832; Sohibzoda-
Hazrat, Kokand; Said Ahmad-Khoja, Margilan, etc.).
Despite the fact that chronologically Bukhara madrassas with such a layout precede the Kokand
ones, it is impossible to talk about their influence on the Kokand school. It can be assumed that these
were parallel developing processes of the formation and development of local types of madrasahs that
were in no way dependent on each other.
In the Kokand region, in addition to madrassas and mosques, mausoleums were also built. They
all have a number of similar typological features. The main volume is a cubic space covered with a
dome. It is noteworthy that the entrance was decorated with a rather narrow and elongated peshtak
with kungra teeth, which is flanked by graceful guldasta towers with light lanterns.
This type of peshtak was subsequently used in many Kokand madrassas. In Kokand memorial
architecture, a local system of tiled decoration was first developed (Madar-i-Khan mausoleum, 1825;
Dakhma-i-Shakhon mausoleum, 1825). Compared to earlier madrasahs, the aesthetics of the external
decoration have changed here.
Complex geometric patterns, representing octagons with stars and cross shapes placed in them,
eight-pointed stars with stepped diamonds inside, decorating the peshtaki of both buildings, and
diagonally colored diamonds, and zigzags.
A common, unifying feature for the three schools of the trend during this period was the appeal
to the “classical” scheme of a large madrasah. Moreover, in cities or localities being built from
scratch, greater attention was paid to large city-forming madrasahs, in contrast to Bukhara, where the
urban ensemble had already been formed, and the main madrasahs were fully operational.
Results
It should also be noted that in the period 1790-1820, the architecture of local schools clearly
showed its own peculiarities [Levi S., 5]:
-
in Bukhara - the dominant development is the type of madrassas with an open plan;
-
conservatism of Khiva architecture and the formation of the Khorezm decorative system;
-
in Kokand - connection with folk forms of creativity and memorial architecture of East
Turkestan.
-
Small in size, they represent cubic or rectangular volumes, covered with domes (one or more,
as in the case of Chor-Gumbaz, which has a four-domed system) and surrounded by open columned
iwans; the shape of the iwans could also vary, but the most common were «Г»- figurative.
The most remarkable thing is the decor of the iwans: carved capitals of thin columns and bright,
colored paintings of the ceilings. Most often, crushed plant ornaments with curly “shoots”, sometimes
entwining entire bouquets of flowers, were used; less often, beams were covered with colored stripes.
The color range used by the masters was also very diverse - with a clear dominance of green, red,
ocher, light blue and dark blue colors were included in the painting.
It should be noted that the active use in architecture of paintings using floral ornaments, which
are of a purely local nature and similar to folk embroidery and fabrics, coincided with the rise of
textile production in Kokand in the 19th century.
So, the Kokand school at the end of the 19th century increasingly focused on the forms of the
“folk”, which was manifested not only in the popularity of the type of summer iwan mosque, whose
form was borrowed from residential architecture, but also in turning to local crafts: embroidery and
carpet weaving, from which they adopted ornamental motifs used in architecture.
This greatly distinguishes the Kokand tradition from the Bukhara and Khiva ones, where they
strived to a greater extent to repeat their own “classical” ancient tradition, which was absent in
Kokand.
Conclusion
So, we can draw the following conclusions that:
-
the architecture of madrasahs in Central Asia (19th century) is a unique phenomenon, and the
local schools formed during this period have an amazing originality;
-
the combination of multiple external influences, cultural exchange within the region and the
presence of a rich heritage of the past, led to the emergence in each region of a special program of
spatial-compositional and decorative solutions in the development of architectural solutions;
-
a comprehensive study of the features of architectural and design solutions of Central Asian
madrasahs and analysis of the created complexes will make it possible to preserve the traditional
features of urban planning, in synthesis with modern directions of development of the architecture of
cultural and spiritual centers.
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