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The role and physiological basis of exchange of macro- and
microelements in human nutrition
Avazbek ABDURAKHMANOV
1
Andijan State Medical Institute
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received May 2025
Received in revised form
15 June 2025
Accepted 25 June 2025
Available online
15 July 2025
This article explores the physiological significance of macro-
and microelement exchange in human nutrition. Emphasis is
placed on the biological functions, metabolic interactions,
absorption mechanisms, and clinical relevance of these essential
elements in maintaining homeostasis. The paper also discusses
dietary sources, deficiency and toxicity syndromes, and the
regulatory systems governing mineral balance.
2181-
1415/©
2025 in Science LLC.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47689/2181-1415-vol6-iss6/S-pp281-285
This is an open access article under the Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.ru)
Keywords:
macroelements,
microelements,
human metabolism,
mineral exchange,
nutrition,
absorption,
homeostasis.
Inson
oziqlanishida
makro-
va
mikroelementlar
almashinuvining ahamiyati va fiziologik asoslari
ANNOTATSIYA
Kalit so
‘
zlar:
makroelementlar,
mikroelementlar,
inson metabolizmi,
mineral almashinuvi,
ovqatlanish,
so‘rilish,
gomeostaz.
Ushbu
maqola
inson
ovqatlanishida
makro-
va
mikroelementlar almashinuvining fiziologik ahamiyatini tadqiq
etadi. Asosiy e’tibor
gomeostazni saqlashda bu muhim
elementlarning biologik vazifalari, metabolik o‘zaro ta’sirlari,
so‘rilish mexanizmlari va klinik ahamiyatiga qaratilgan.
Shuningdek, maqolada ovqatlanish manbalari, tanqislik va
zaharlanish holatlari, hamda mineral muvozanatni boshqaruvchi
tizimlar muhokama qilinadi.
1
Associate Professor, Department of Normal Physiology, Andijan State Medical Institute.
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282
Роль и физиологические основы обмена макро
-
и
микроэлементов в питании человека
АННОТАЦИЯ
Ключевые слова:
макроэлементы,
микроэлементы,
метаболизм человека,
минеральный обмен,
питание,
абсорбция,
гомеостаз
.
В данной статье исследуется физиологическое значение
обмена макро
-
и микроэлементов в питании человека.
Основное внимание уделяется биологическим функциям,
метаболическим взаимодействиям, механизмам усвоения и
клинической значимости этих незаменимых элементов в
поддержании гомеостаза. В работе также рассматриваются
пищевые источники, синдромы дефицита и токсичности, а
также регуляторные системы, управляющие минеральным
балансом
.
INTRODUCTION
Human nutrition is a highly complex and finely tuned process that ensures the
optimal functioning of every system in the div. Among the indispensable components of
a healthy diet are macro- and microelements
—
minerals that participate in structural,
enzymatic, osmotic, and signaling roles. These elements are not synthesized endogenously
and must be obtained from external sources, such as food and water. The regulation of
their exchange
—
encompassing absorption, transport, utilization, and excretion
—
is a
central feature of physiological homeostasis.
Macroelements, including calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus,
and chloride, are required in larger quantities (above 100 mg/day), whereas
microelements or trace elements
—
such as iron, zinc, copper, selenium, iodine, manganese,
and chromium
—
are needed in minute amounts but are no less vital. Deficiencies or
imbalances of either category can lead to a wide spectrum of metabolic disturbances and
clinical disorders.
M
А
T
Е
RI
А
LS
А
ND M
Е
TH
О
DS
Macroelements are crucial for maintaining the structural integrity of tissues and
regulating cellular function. For instance, calcium (Ca²⁺) is the primary mineral in bone
and teeth but also acts as a second messenger in signal transduction and is essential in
muscle contraction, blood coagulation, and neurotransmitter release. Approximately 99%
of calcium is stored in bones, with the remaining fraction tightly regulated in plasma.
Phosphorus (P), mainly found as phosphate (PO₄³⁻), is involved in ATP production,
nucleic acid synthesis, and cellular buffering systems. It works synergistically with calcium
in bone mineralization. Magnesium (Mg²⁺) serves as a cofactor in more than 300 enzymatic
reactions, particularly in ATP metabolism, nucleic acid stability, and neuromuscular
conduction.
Sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) are vital electrolytes. Sodium maintains
extracellular fluid volume and is integral to nerve impulse transmission. Potassium
regulates intracellular osmotic pressure and is critical for maintaining membrane
potential. The sodium-
potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺
-ATPase) is a hallmark of this exchange
system, using ATP to actively transport ions across membranes, preserving
electrochemical gradients essential for cellular excitability.
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R
Е
SULTS
А
ND DIS
С
USSI
О
N
Despite their small required quantities, microelements play irreplaceable roles in
metabolism. Iron (Fe) is central in oxygen transport (as part of hemoglobin and
myoglobin), cellular respiration (cytochromes), and DNA synthesis. Zinc (Zn) contributes
to enzymatic catalysis, immune function, and wound healing. It stabilizes protein and cell
membrane structures and influences gene expression through zinc-finger proteins.
Iodine (I) is incorporated into thyroid hormones (T₃ and T₄), which regulate basal
metabolic rate and are essential for brain development, especially during gestation and
early infancy. Selenium (Se) is vital for antioxidant defense (glutathione peroxidase),
thyroid hormone metabolism, and immune responses.
These trace elements are absorbed via specific transporters in the gastrointestinal
tract and stored in the liver, bones, or blood, depending on their chemical properties. For
instance, iron absorption is tightly controlled by hepcidin, a liver-derived peptide that
regulates ferroportin channels. Excess or deficiency leads to clinical conditions: iron-
deficiency anemia or iron overload (hemochromatosis), zinc deficiency-related growth
retardation, and goiter from iodine imbalance.
Homeostasis of mineral balance is governed by hormonal, renal, and
gastrointestinal mechanisms. Parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitriol (active vitamin D₃),
and calcitonin coordinate calcium and phosphorus metabolism. In hypocalcemia, PTH
stimulates bone resorption, increases renal calcium reabsorption, and activates vitamin D,
which enhances intestinal calcium uptake.
Renal function plays a major role in excretion and reabsorption. For example,
potassium homeostasis is regulated by aldosterone, which increases renal secretion of K⁺
w
hile retaining Na⁺. The renin
-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) links sodium
balance to blood pressure control [1].
Additionally, nutrient-nutrient interactions influence mineral bioavailability.
Excessive dietary calcium may inhibit zinc or magnesium absorption. Phytates and
oxalates in plant-based diets can bind minerals, reducing absorption efficiency. Therefore,
balanced dietary composition is essential for optimal mineral utilization.
Balanced diets typically provide sufficient macro- and microelements. Dairy
products are rich in calcium and phosphorus, green leafy vegetables in magnesium, fruits
and meats in potassium. Whole grains, legumes, and seafood contribute trace elements like
zinc, selenium, and iodine.
Deficiencies may arise from malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes, chronic
diseases, or restrictive diets. For instance, vegetarian diets may be low in iron and zinc due
to the absence of heme iron and higher levels of phytate. Bariatric surgery patients may
require lifelong mineral supplementation due to impaired absorption surfaces.
Clinical manifestations of mineral imbalance are diverse. Hypocalcemia may lead to
tetany and cardiac arrhythmias; iron deficiency results in fatigue, pallor, and cognitive
impairment. In contrast, excess fluoride can cause dental and skeletal fluorosis. As such,
individual assessment of dietary intake, laboratory evaluation, and appropriate
supplementation are vital in clinical nutrition and preventive medicine [2].
The metabolism of macro- and microelements is not static across the human
lifespan; rather, it undergoes dynamic modulation based on age, physiological state, and
developmental stage. During infancy and adolescence, the demand for minerals such as
calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium is markedly elevated due to rapid skeletal growth,
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cellular proliferation, and neurodevelopment. In these stages, any disruption in mineral
balance
—
particularly deficiencies in iron or iodine
—
can result in irreversible cognitive
and physical impairments. For instance, iron deficiency during infancy has been
conclusively linked to poor attention span, delayed motor development, and lower IQ
scores in later childhood.
In pregnancy, the maternal requirement for elements such as iron, iodine, and
calcium increases substantially. Iodine is crucial for fetal thyroid hormone synthesis, and
its insufficiency is directly implicated in congenital hypothyroidism and
neurodevelopmental delays. The World Health Organization emphasizes universal salt
iodization as a preventive strategy to eliminate iodine-deficiency disorders globally.
Meanwhile, postmenopausal women are at heightened risk for osteoporosis due to
declining estrogen levels, which accelerate bone resorption and calcium loss. Therefore,
targeted mineral supplementation becomes essential in these life stages [3].
Disruptions in mineral exchange can lead to a broad spectrum of disorders that often
manifest systemically. In cases of electrolyte imbalances, such as hyperkalemia or
hyponatremia, life-threatening cardiac and neurological symptoms may ensue. These
abnormalities often arise due to renal insufficiency, endocrine disorders (e.g., Addison’s
disease), or medication effects (diuretics, ACE inhibitors). The tightly controlled interplay
between aldosterone, vasopressin, and natriuretic peptides underpins sodium and water
homeostasis. In clinical settings, even marginal deviations in sodium levels can result in
cognitive dysfunction, seizures, or coma.
Additionally, zinc deficiency
—
common in populations with monotonous cereal-
based diets or chronic gastrointestinal disorders
—
can impair immune responses, delay
wound healing, and increase susceptibility to infections. In recent years, zinc has also been
recognized for its antiviral activity, particularly in the context of respiratory tract
infections, including COVID-19.
Another critical condition is selenium deficiency, which may lead to Keshan
disease
—
a cardiomyopathy observed in selenium-deficient regions of China
—
and
impaired antioxidant defense due to reduced activity of glutathione peroxidase.
Conversely, selenium excess (selenosis) presents with brittle nails, hair loss, and
gastrointestinal disturbances. These examples illustrate the narrow therapeutic window
for several trace elements, underscoring the importance of maintaining their physiological
concentrations within strict limits.
Contemporary research has significantly expanded our understanding of mineral
metabolism at the molecular level. The discovery of transporter proteins, such as DMT1
(divalent metal transporter 1) for iron and TRPV6 for calcium, has provided insights into
the regulation of mineral uptake in the intestinal epithelium. Moreover, genetic
polymorphisms in these transporters can predispose individuals to disorders such as
hereditary hemochromatosis or hypocalcemia [4].
The emerging field of nutrigenomics investigates how genetic variation affects
nutrient metabolism and vice versa. For example, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
in the SLC30A8 gene, which encodes a zinc transporter in pancreatic
β
-cells, have been
associated with type 2 diabetes susceptibility. This suggests that microelement
metabolism is intricately woven into gene-environment interactions, which shape
individual disease risk and therapeutic responses.
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Furthermore, research into the gut microbiome has revealed its substantial role in
regulating mineral bioavailability. Certain probiotic strains enhance calcium and
magnesium absorption, while gut inflammation or dysbiosis can impair uptake. The
implication is that future strategies to improve mineral balance may involve targeted
modulation of the gut ecosystem, rather than supplementation alone [5].
СО
N
С
LUSI
О
N
The exchange of macro- and microelements is foundational to human health. These
elements, although required in differing amounts, share a common attribute: they are
indispensable. Their physiological roles span structural, regulatory, enzymatic, and
hormonal functions. Disruptions in their homeostasis may result in serious metabolic or
systemic diseases. Therefore, understanding their exchange mechanisms and ensuring
proper dietary intake is a cornerstone of both public health nutrition and individualized
medical care.
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Соломон С., Мартин Р. Физиология человека. —
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