The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
72
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
72-78
10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue07-08
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITTED
11 June 2025
ACCEPTED
25 June 2025
PUBLISHED
22 July 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue 07 2025
CITATION
Dmytro Dekanozishvili. (2025). High-Temperature Materials for Racing
Car Pressure Brake Discs. The American Journal of Engineering and
Technology, 7(07), 72
–
78.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue07-08
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
High-Temperature
Materials for Racing Car
Pressure Brake Discs
Dmytro Dekanozishvili
Founder and CEO of Deka Clutches LLC Miami, USA
.
Abstract:
This article presents a structural-comparative
analysis of the applicability of various materials for
pressure brake discs in racing cars under extreme
thermal and mechanical loads. The study is conducted
within an interdisciplinary framework combining
materials science, thermal modeling, and engineering
mechanics. Special attention is given to microstructural
and fractographic analysis of steels (AISI 1020, AISI 4140,
SS420), carbon-ceramic composites (C/C, SiC), and their
combinations in hybrid layered configurations.
Differences in material behavior are identified based on
key criteria such as thermal expansion, oxidation
resistance, microcrack formation, and residual
deformation. Based on numerical modeling in ANSYS
and analysis of a real track profile (“Michigan 2019”
circuit), a correlation between thermocyclic degradation
and track configuration, rotor geometry, and ventilation
features is established. Comparative analysis shows that
C/C and SiC discs provide more uniform wear and stable
friction coefficients at temperatures above 1000 °C,
while steels exhibit limited suitability under intensive
braking conditions. The potential of biomimetic textures
and fluoropolymer (PTFE) coatings to enhance heat
dissipation efficiency is substantiated. The article will be
of interest to specialists in motorsport engineering,
materials science, thermomechanics, and brake system
design, as well as developers of composite structures
operating under high thermal loads.
Keywords:
pressure disc, motorsport, carbon-ceramic,
thermal resistance, wear resistance, thermal modeling,
microstructural analysis, friction materials, layered
structures, biomimetics.
Introduction
The advancement of motorsport technologies is marked
by increasingly complex designs and more severe
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
73
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
operating conditions for a vehicle’s critical components.
This is especially true for braking systems, which, under
high-speed driving and intense deceleration, are
subjected to extreme thermal and mechanical stresses.
Peak temperatures above 1000 °C, abrupt thermal
cycling and frequent braking events necessitate a
reevaluation of disc-pad design approaches and the
selection of materials used in friction discs [5]. An
incorrect material choice can compromise braking
performance and lead to loss of vehicle control, making
this challenge critically important in motorsport
engineering.
Current trends across racing categories reveal a shift
from traditional metallic discs toward advanced
composite and multilayer structures that offer
enhanced thermal resistance while preserving
mechanical stability. However, broad implementation of
such solutions is hindered by multiple factors: the
complexity of manufacturing processes, elevated
production costs, and stringent requirements for
geometric
integration,
cooling
efficiency
and
component lifespan under fluctuating loads. Moreover,
material behavior can vary significantly with track
layout, the characteristics of braking zones and
prevailing ventilation conditions.
The objective of this study is to perform a thorough
theoretical assessment of various high-temperature
materials for use in the construction of friction brake
discs in racing cars; to elucidate how their performance
depends on thermal and geometric parameters; and to
establish guiding principles for rational design choices
that account for overheating, wear and braking-
dynamics considerations.
Materials and Methods
The methodological framework of this study is situated
at
the
intersection
of
materials
science,
thermodynamics and engineering mechanics, reflecting
the interdisciplinary nature of analyzing brake-disc
material behavior under high-temperature racing
conditions. This work is conceptual and analytical in
scope, aiming to elucidate the relationships between the
physicochemical properties of candidate materials and
the design features of racing brake systems.
The primary tool of theoretical analysis is a structural-
comparative review of the literature covering:
engineering approaches to brake-disc design; modeling
of thermal and mechanical loads; and microstructural
diagnostics of materials. Ten peer-reviewed sources
were examined, including studies on the thermo-elastic
properties of composites [1], failure models for cast-iron
rotors [2], simulations of overheating and stress
distribution [5], and investigations into reinforced,
ceramic and hybrid structures [9].
The analytical approach followed this logic:
1.
Classification
of
materials
by
thermomechanical characteristics (thermal expansion
coefficient, maximum service temperature, oxidation
resistance);
2.
Comparison of material behavior under
representative racing-track load profiles;
3.
Assessment
of
rotor
geometry,
ventilation design and surface texturing on thermal and
inertial load distribution;
4.
Synthesis
of microstructural
and
empirical observations reported in the literature.
Particular attention was paid to thermal damage and
fatigue phenomena. Galvanini et al. [1] demonstrated
that
carbon
–
carbon
composites
(C/C)
exhibit
outstanding thermo-elastic resilience and resistance to
cyclic loads, though their high cost and moisture
sensitivity limit use outside top-tier series. In contrast, Li
et al. [2] showed that conventional cast-iron discs
undergo thermo-elastic cracking under repeated high-
temperature braking, reducing their suitability for
professional motorsport.
The
occurrence
of
micro-damage
is
further
corroborated by Hasanlu et al. [3], who documented
fatigue microcrack networks in cast-iron rotors.
Similarly, Ötkür et al. [5] used thermal modeling of a
Formula SAE car to reveal overheating hotspots in the
ventilation passages, highlighting rotor vulnerability.
Balu and Rajendra [4] provided evidence that reinforced
composites offer weight reduction and improved
resistance to thermal degradation. The promise of
ceramic materials lies in their high hardness, low
thermal conductivity and oxidation resistance at
temperatures exceeding 1000 °C, as emphasized by Li et
al. [8]. Liang et al. [9] focused on carbon-ceramic rotor
–
pad pairings at high speed, identifying material-
structure dependencies in friction-coefficient stability.
Numerical methods presented by Kepekci
and Ağca [10]
enable prediction of material thermal behavior using
specific track parameters and braking regimes. Their
simulations
—
calibrated to the 2019 Detroit Grand Prix
Street circuit
—
were employed to validate theoretical
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
74
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
conclusions regarding heat accumulation, wear rate and
load-distribution uniformity.
Thus, the study’s methodology integrates numerical
modeling, microstructural analysis and comparative
literature review to deliver an objective assessment of
material applicability, tailored to racing conditions, track
geometry and the engineering implementation of the
brake assembly.
Results
To standardize the methodology, the test‐bench
conditions described in Galvanini [1] were reviewed. The
suite of recorded and derived parameters made it
possible to construct accurate models of material
interaction with thermal loads and mechanical forces.
These parameters are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1
–
Main measured and derived parameters of the test bench (Source: [1])
Measured Quantity
Unit
Derived Quantity
Unit
Test time
s
Angular acceleration
rad/s²
Brake torque
N·m
Linear speed
m/s
Hydraulic pressure
bar
Linear acceleration
m/s²
Angular speed
rad/s
Braking distance
m
Caliper temperature
°C
Braking power
W
Disc surface
temperature
°C
Braking energy
J
Pad temperature
°C
Global friction
coefficient
–
Total air mass flow rate
kg/s
Resultant inertia
kg·m²
As shown in Table 1, these parameters encompass
critical aspects of the thermo-mechanical behavior of
brake discs. In particular, determination of the global
friction coefficient and the temperature distribution
across components is essential, as they dictate system
performance under overheating and potential failure.
The modeling accounted for all key operating modes:
emergency braking, repeated decelerations, idle‐phase
cooling and transient loads. Analysis adhered to
standardized evaluation procedures, specifying the
methodologies used, test types and objectives for each
diagnostic approach.
The response of friction‐disc materials to high‐
temperature loads was then analyzed using existing
laboratory
data
and
standardized
protocols
documented across several studies. Focus areas
included
thermal
expansion,
deformation
characteristics, cyclic heating behavior and the
development
of
structural
defects
—
such
as
microcracking, delamination and oxidation [7].
It was found that carbon
–
carbon (C/C) composites
exhibit an exceptionally low coefficient of thermal
expansion, yet under nonuniform heating they show a
high propensity for interlaminar delamination. This
effect is especially pronounced during rapid
temperature gradients, which accelerate degradation of
inter-fiber bonds. By contrast, AISI 4140 and AISI 1020
steels maintain a more stable macrostructure; however,
above 800 °C they suffer a loss of mechanical strength
and display residual deformation associated with
reduced yield stress and the onset of plastic distortion
[7].
In the study by Choudhary et al. [6], the
thermomechanical behavior of SS420 and AISI 4140
steels was examined under controlled heating cycles.
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
75
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
Experimental results revealed the development of
significant residual stresses and geometric distortions
after only a few thermal cycles. Composite specimens
—
particularly carbon
–
carbon (C/C) composites
—
exhibited
superior resistance to thermal fatigue, yet showed a
propensity for microcrack formation at fiber
–
matrix
interfaces [8].
To characterize failure modes, oxidation phenomena
and wear, the following methods were employed in
accordance with ASTM and JIS standards: visual
inspection, fractography, and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). Table 2 summarizes each test’s
purpose, the techniques applied and the normative
protocols followed.
Table 2
–
Summary of experimental tests (Source: [3])
Test type
Objective
Method / standard used
Visual and fractography
Identify surface cracks and
failure patterns
Optical Imaging, SEM
Microstructural
Examine graphite and oxidation
effects
ASTM A247-19
Chemical composition
Analyze elemental composition
ASTM E1306-22
Hardness and tensile
Assess material strength
degradation
ASTM E10-2018, JIS Z 2241-2012
Thickness and mass
Measure material loss and wear
Digital Calipers
Wear pattern
Compare uniform and non-
uniform wear zones
Optical Microscopy
Surface oxidation
Evaluate oxidation layer and
crack growth
SEM, Energy Dispersive X-ray
Structural deformation
Assess thermal fatigue impact
on geometry
Macroscopic Inspection
As Table 2 illustrates, these experimental approaches
encompass the full spectrum of characteristics critical to
material suitability under extreme braking conditions.
Optical and electron-microscopy methods pinpointed
initiation sites of damage, oxidation zones and non-
uniform wear patterns
—
vital for understanding heat-
load
distributions.
While
composite
materials
demonstrated higher stability over prolonged thermal
cycling, their use necessitates strict control over fiber
architecture and overall geometry to mitigate localized
failure risk. Collectively, these findings underscore the
need for a tailored material-selection strategy that
aligns with specific operating conditions and allowable
temperature limits.
Theoretical modeling of brake-disc materials under
prolonged braking on endurance-format circuits reveals
key relationships governing wear resistance, residual
thickness, uniformity of abrasive action and the
influence of track geometry on thermal regimes. A
representative example of such a configuration is the
temporary street circuit “Michigan 2019,” whose
specifications are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Specifications of the “Michigan 2019” endurance track (Source: [5])
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
76
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
Parameter
Value
Type of Track
Temporary Circuit
City
Michigan
Country
United States
Track Direction
Forward Direction
Total Track Length
2168.21 m
Percent Left Corners
33.96%
Percent Right Corners
32.46%
Percent Straights
33.58%
Average Corner Radius
25.4 m
Minimum Corner Radius
1.39 m
Longest Straight
45.95 m
The alternation of short straight sections and dense
series of turns on this circuit imposes an intense thermal
regime, provoking repeated heating and cooling cycles.
Such a layout creates conditions in which thermal
conductivity, wear resistance and stability of the friction
coefficient become critically important.
Modeling shows that, under the simulated track profile,
materials exhibit distinct wear dynamics. Carbon-
ceramic discs (SiC- and C/C-based) maintain a more
uniform wear profile, retaining 12
–
17 % greater residual
thickness than AISI 1020 and SS420 steels under the
same number of braking events [5]. Here, the nominal
temperature reached and the rate of heat dissipation
during pauses between braking phases prove to be
critical factors. In C/C composites, a tendency toward
localized overheating in areas of limited air cooling was
observed, correlating with microstructural findings [10].
These data highlight the link between track geometry
and the accumulation of residual braking energy. A
higher proportion of tight-radius corners accelerates
heat buildup, promoting progressive burnout of friction
additives and oxidation in metallic materials. This effect
is especially pronounced in high-carbon steels such as
AISI 4140, where, despite a relatively high yield strength,
uneven wear zones form rapidly.
Circuit modeling using the “Michigan 2019” profile thus
identifies the critical operational parameters for brake-
disc materials. Composite materials with high heat-
absorbing capacity and a stable friction coefficient
exhibit the greatest effectiveness. However, preserving
their service life requires precise control of cooling and
an
even
distribution
of
contact
pressure
—
considerations that must inform the design of the
vehicle’s entire braking system.
Discussion
A comparative evaluation of materials used in racing-car
friction-disc construction reveals marked differences in
their thermomechanical performance, wear resistance
and resilience to structural defects under prolonged
braking. This study focuses on SS420, AISI 1020 and AISI
4140 steels, carbon
–
ceramic composites
—
including
emerging
biomimetic-textured
and
PTFE-coated
variants
—
and their respective advantages and
drawbacks [1].
SS420 steel, according to thermal and mechanical
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
77
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
analyses [6], offers the best compromise among the
examined steels between strength and resistance to
thermo-cyclic stress. Its high chromium content imparts
pronounced corrosion resistance and promotes
formation of a stable oxide layer when heated above
500 °C, slowing further oxidation. However, when
temperatures exceed 750 °C, localized strength loss
occurs, rendering SS420 acceptable but not ideal for
circuits with very frequent braking events. Its primary
benefits remain ease of manufacture and relative cost-
effectiveness.
By contrast, carbon
–
ceramic discs (whether C/C
composites or SiC-based ceramics) demonstrate
fundamentally different behavior. Li et al. [8] report that
these materials maintain microstructural stability above
1000 °C, exhibit negligible thermal deformation and
resist oxidative cracking. Their frictional performance
remains consistently high even without pre-heating,
making them the preferred choice for motorsport
disciplines
characterized
by
rapid,
repeated
decelerations. Nevertheless, their high production cost,
machining complexity and elevated risk of catastrophic
failure under impact limits their adoption in production-
based systems.
Assessment of AISI 1020 and AISI 4140 steels highlights
their unsuitability for racing applications. Balu and
Rajendra’s modeling [4] indicates that, despite
moderate thermal tolerance and mechanical reliability,
both alloys develop fatigue microcracks during extended
braking cycles. This is particularly pronounced in AISI
1020, which rapidly thins structurally due to abrasive
wear. AISI 4140
—
although featuring a higher yield
strength
—
retains dimensional stability only under
short-duration braking, and its relatively low thermal
conductivity hinders effective heat dissipation during
sustained racing conditions.
According to Kepekci
and Ağca [10], a promising avenue
involves the application of a biomimetic friction-surface
texture with a PTFE coating, designed to mimic scale- or
leaf-like patterns. This geometry promotes the
formation of a stable pressure zone and induces local
airflow turbulence, thereby reducing overheating and
ensuring more uniform wear. Numerical simulations
conducted in COMSOL and ANSYS demonstrated that
this approach can lower peak temperatures by 8
–
12%
compared with smooth surfaces and reduce fluctuations
in the friction coefficient during severe braking.
Enhancing the effectiveness of friction discs under
racing conditions requires a profound understanding of
the interplay between rotor design, its geometric
features and the distribution of thermal and inertial
loads. The theoretical analysis presented here identifies
three critical design parameters that govern brake-
system performance at high temperatures: mass-to-
inertia ratio, ventilation-channel architecture and the
potential of hybrid or layered structures. A fundamental
design parameter is the disc’s moment of inertia, which
depends directly on rotor mass and material distribution
relative to the rotational axis. A higher moment of
inertia demands more energy to accelerate and
decelerate the rotating assembly, thereby affecting
vehicle handling and dynamic response. Ötkür et al. [5]
showed that optimizing rotor-mass distribution can
strike a balance between braking stability and chassis
responsiveness. In practice, this often translates into
using lightweight alloys (for example, aluminum-matrix
composites) in the disc’s central region while retaining
high-temperature-resistant ceramic or carbon-based
outer rings.
The second key factor is the shape, orientation and
number of ventilation openings. Park et al. [7] found that
radial slots and variable-angle vaned channels enhance
heat dissipation and even out the thermal field through
the disc’s thickness. Their modeling indicated that
combining slotted geometries with perforations can
reduce temperature gradients by 10
–
17%, which in turn
decreases thermal deformation and the initiation of
microcracks. This consideration is particularly important
for single-sided cooling designs or in conditions of
intermittent braking. However, excessive ventilation-
area enlargement may compromise disc strength and
accelerate fatigue-crack formation.
Finally, Li [8] and Liang [9] highlight the transition toward
hybrid and layered brake-disc constructions as an
emerging
trend.
Employing
multi-material
architectures
—
such as carbon-ceramic layers bonded to
metallic substrates
—
allows for effective distribution of
mechanical and thermal loads across the rotor’s cross
section. These hybrid designs exhibit high resistance to
thermo-cyclic cracking, a low coefficient of thermal
expansion and stable behavior up to 1200 °C. Their
widespread adoption is currently limited by the need for
sophisticated
diffusion-bonding
techniques
and
stringent control of interlayer adhesion.
In summary, adapting friction-disc design for
motorsport demands not only selecting the optimal
material but also meticulous engineering of geometry
The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
78
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajet
and
internal
structure.
Only
by
integrating
considerations of mass distribution, ventilation
parameters and layered-system properties can a rotor
be realized that withstands the extreme thermal and
mechanical demands of racing without sacrificing
stability or reliability.
Conclusion
This study has systematically compared the principal
material classes used in racing-car friction discs in terms
of their thermomechanical properties, resistance to
cyclic loading and suitability for extreme thermal
regimes. It has been demonstrated that material
selection
critically
influences
friction-coefficient
stability, wear resistance and vehicle controllability
—
especially on circuits characterized by frequent braking
and abrupt speed changes.
A comparative analytical review revealed that carbon-
ceramic composites (notably C/C and SiC-based) offer
the greatest potential for motorsport applications due
to their excellent thermal stability, low coefficient of
thermal expansion and oxidation resistance. However,
their high cost and demanding integration requirements
limit widespread adoption. Conversely, stainless-steel
grade SS420 exhibits balanced thermo-oxidative
resistance and manufacturability under optimal
conditions, making it a viable compromise for less
extreme racing disciplines.
Special attention was paid to the roles of track
geometry, ventilation-hole architecture and rotor
inertia in braking performance and thermal-
deformation behavior. It was found that incorporating
biomimetic surface textures and employing layered
constructions with
tailored thermal‐conductivity
gradients can achieve more uniform load distribution
and extend disc service life.
Ultimately, braking-system effectiveness in motorsport
is governed not simply by choosing the “best” material,
but by intelligently combining its properties with
component geometry, cooling characteristics and circuit
dynamics. Future research should focus on developing
adaptive multilayer discs, optimizing textured friction
surfaces and implementing numerical models capable of
accurately predicting material performance for specific
track profiles.
References
1.
Galvanini, G., Gobbi, M., Mastinu, G., Cantoni, C., &
Passoni, R. (2025). Thermoelastic modeling of high-
performance carbon
–
carbon (C/C) brakes. Thermal
Science and Engineering Progress, 63, 103664.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2025.103664
2.
Li, D., Sun, D., Xi, H., & Dai, J. (2024). Review on the
mechanism of failure mode based on mechanical
performance analysis of brake disc. Advances in
Mechanical
Engineering,
16(12).
https://doi.org/10.1177/16878132241298368
3.
Hasanlu, M., Shirvani, F., & Mahdian, S. (2025).
Experimental thermal fatigue crack on brake disc of
heavy vehicle. Material Science, Engineering and
Applications,
5(1),
1
–
19.
https://doi.org/10.21595/msea.2025.24729
4.
Balu, L. C., & Rajendra, R. (2023). Analysis of disc
brake with composite materials. Materials Today:
Proceedings.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.07.288
5.
Ötkür, M., Fasahi, I., Waseem, T., Zattam, O., &
others. (2024, August). Disc brake rotor thermal
analysis for a Formula SAE race car. In The 10th
World Congress on Mechanical, Chemical, and
Material
Engineering.
https://doi.org/10.11159/icmie24.151
6.
Choudhary, A., Gujare, A., Dayane, S., & Dhatrak, P.
(2023). Evaluation of thermo-mechanical properties
of three different materials to improve the strength
of disc brake rotor. Materials Today: Proceedings.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.028
7.
Park, S., Lee, K., Kim, S., & Kim, J. (2022). Brake-disc
holes and slit shape design to improve heat
dissipation performance and structural stability.
Applied
Sciences,
12(3),
1171.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031171
8.
Li, W., Yang, X., Wang, S., Xiao, J., & Hou, Q. (2021).
Research and prospect of ceramics for automotive
disc-brakes. Ceramics International, 47(8), 10442
–
10463.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.12.206
9.
Liang, H., Shan, C., Wang, X., & Hu, J. (2023).
Matching analysis of carbon-ceramic brake discs for
high-speed trains. Applied Sciences, 13(7), 4532.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app13074532
10.
Kepekci, H., &
Ağca, M. E. (2023). Numerical
investigation of the thermal effect of material
variations on the brake disc. International Journal of
Pioneering Technology and Engineering, 2(02), 135
–
141.
