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TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
215-224
10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue03-18
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
20 January 2025
ACCEPTED
19 February 2025
PUBLISHED
17 March 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue03 2025
CITATION
Utkir Mirzakamalovich Khalikulov. (2025). Thermomechanical methods of
hardening chromium-molybdenum steel products. The American Journal of
Engineering and Technology, 7(03), 215
–
224.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue03-18
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Thermomechanical
methods of hardening
chromium-molybdenum
steel products
Utkir Mirzakamalovich Khalikulov
56. E, Amir Temur Avenue, Olmaliq, AB NUST MISIS, Uzbekistan
Abstract:
The article discusses the results of research
dedicated to the thermomechanical processing of
products made from chromium-molybdenum steel,
similar to
grade 35ХМЛ, but modified with vanadium as
a modifier. The experiments were conducted under
serial production conditions with the aim of improving
the technological process. Within the framework of the
study, a method was implemented where the forging
process was combined with subsequent heat treatment,
performed immediately after forging at a specialized
station. This approach eliminates the need for re-
heating of products, which significantly reduces energy
consumption and enhances production efficiency.
During the cooling process of the products, it is
necessary to maintain the optimal temperature regime
to ensure a controlled exothermic phase transformation
of austenite into pearlite. This allows for the formation
of a balanced ferrite-pearlite structure, which provides
the necessary mechanical properties, including the
required hardness range.
The test results confirmed that the correct selection of
the isothermal annealing temperature regime
contributes
to
achieving
stable
operational
characteristics of the products. The implementation of
this technology in industrial production will significantly
reduce energy consumption
—
by more than 80%
compared to traditional heat treatment methods. In
addition, eliminating re-heating reduces the overall
manufacturing time, which contributes to increased
productivity and a decrease in production costs.
Thus, the proposed technological method not only
enhances the energy efficiency of production but also
ensures the production of products with predictable
mechanical properties. Its application in industry could
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play a key role in optimizing the processing of
chromium-molybdenum steels, which is particularly
important in the context of the drive to reduce costs
and rational use of resources.
Keywords:
Chromium-molybdenum steels, modifier,
mechanical properties, heat treatment, strength,
impact
toughness,
corrosion
resistance,
microstructure, grain structure, carbides, wear
resistance, heat resistance, oil and gas industry,
energy, alloying, economic efficiency, structural
materials, durability, metallography, high-quality
materials.
Introduction:
The industrial sector of Uzbekistan's
economy faces a number of challenges that require the
use of materials with a unique combination of
characteristics: high strength, corrosion resistance,
heat resistance, and durability. In the context of
growing technological complexity and competition,
chromium-molybdenum steels hold a special place due
to their reliability and versatility. These alloyed steels
possess outstanding mechanical and operational
properties, making them indispensable in critically
important industries.
Main Areas of Application
Thanks to their unique chemical composition,
chromium-molybdenum steels are widely used in
various sectors:
Energy
–
They are used for manufacturing equipment
that operates under extreme conditions, such as
boilers, heat exchangers, pipelines, and turbine
components. These materials can withstand high
temperatures, pressure, and aggressive environments,
ensuring a long service life.
Mining and Metallurgical Industry and Mechanical
Engineering
–
Used for producing parts subjected to
significant loads, such as gears, shafts, axles, and
housing components. Their high strength and wear
resistance enhance the reliability of equipment.
Oil and Gas Industry
–
Used in the production of
pipelines, compressors, storage tanks, and drilling
equipment, which can withstand high pressures,
abrasive impacts, and corrosive environments.
Chemical and Petrochemical Industry
–
Due to their
resistance to aggressive substances, they are used to
manufacture storage tanks, reactors, and pipelines.
Aerospace and Defense Industry
–
Used in the
production of aircraft engines and armored components
that can withstand high temperatures and loads.
One of the ways to save energy by implementing
technological processes consecutively is through direct
forging hardening (DFQ) or direct heat treatment (DHT)
processes, which reduce heat energy consumption by
almost 20% by eliminating the reheating stage [16].
Other examples confirm the feasibility of simplified heat
treatment immediately after hot forging [17].
In this context, direct heat treatment can significantly
reduce energy consumption. Therefore, research is
being conducted to develop technologies that combine
metal forming with heat treatment, without cooling and
reheating products made from modified chromium-
molybdenum steel (see Figure 1).
Fig. 1
. Dependence of energy consumption on types of heat treatment.
Energy savings are achieved by eliminating the need
for reheating products made from modified
chromium-molybdenum steel. In the traditional
technological process (Fig. 2a), products are cooled to
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ambient temperature after forging, then transported
to the heat treatment section, where they are
reheated above the Ac3 temperature. After annealing,
during which the structure acquires a homogeneous
austenitic form, the products are moved to a furnace
with a lower temperature to transform the structure
into ferrite-pearlite. It is assumed that this
transformation is completed fully, so after being
removed from the second furnace, the product
structure remains unchanged regardless of the cooling
rate.
The direct isothermal annealing method (Fig. 2b)
simplifies the process. After forging and trimming, the
products are cooled only to the annealing temperature
and then immediately placed in the furnace. The
subsequent processing is identical to the standard
method. This approach allows for the use of only one
furnace, reducing energy consumption. However, its
implementation may require placing the furnace near
the forging press and ensuring high thermal processing
efficiency, which must match the efficiency of the
forging process.
Fig. 2
. a) Heat treatment method with standard isothermal annealing; b) Heat treatment method with
isothermal annealing directly after forging.
Main Problems and Ways to Improve
Despite
significant
advantages,
chromium-
molybdenum steels have a number of drawbacks that
require further improvement of their composition and
manufacturing technology:
Brittleness at low temperatures
–
Low impact
toughness limits their use in cold regions.
Insufficient plasticity
–
Reduces the material's
adaptability and increases the risk of sudden fractures.
Tendency to crack formation
–
Microcracks that occur
under cyclic loads reduce the service life of products.
Limited corrosion resistance
–
Insufficient resistance in
aggressive environments reduces the durability of
products.
Insufficient wear resistance
–
Leads to increased wear
of components under friction and abrasive loads.
Processing difficulties
–
High hardness complicates
mechanical processing, increasing production costs.
Sensitivity to heat treatment
–
Requires strict control
to prevent excessive brittleness and residual stresses.
Promising Development Directions
To eliminate the above shortcomings, innovative
approaches to improving chromium-molybdenum
steels are necessary. One of the most promising
directions is the use of modifiers that influence the
material's microstructure at the grain level. This allows
for:
Improving the strength and plasticity of steel.
Improving the phase composition and mechanical
properties;
Expanding the areas of application, including extreme
temperature and load conditions.
Modern industry imposes increased requirements for
the reliability and durability of materials. Further
development of the chromium-molybdenum steel
manufacturing technologies will eliminate existing
limitations, enhance their operational characteristics,
and strengthen their position in the industrial materials
market.
Main Objective of the Research
The development of a technology to improve the
mechanical properties of chromium-molybdenum steels
by introducing a modifier that enhances their strength,
plasticity, and other operational characteristics.
The aim of the research is to create a highly efficient
material that will serve as the basis for manufacturing
reliable and durable structures in high demand across
various industrial sectors.
Theoretical Basis of the Research
Chromium-molybdenum steels represent one of the key
groups of alloyed steels, widely used in industry due to
their unique combination of strength, heat resistance,
and corrosion resistance. Some researchers focus on the
impact of chromium and molybdenum content on the
mechanical properties of the steel. Chromium provides
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corrosion resistance and forms a protective oxide
layer, while molybdenum increases heat resistance
and creep resistance.
Experimental Part
The research was conducted on products made from
35XHM chromium-molybdenum steel with the
following chemical composition:
Table 1.
Chemical composition of products made from modified chromium-molybdenum steel [%]
C
Mn
Si
P
S
Cr
Ni
Cu
Mo
Al
0,34
0,78
0,29
0,011
0,010
1,07
0,12
0,24
0,16
0,022
The alloy requirements were set to a moderate
hardness in the range of 249-280 HV, which facilitated
the research tasks and mechanical processing.
Therefore, the preferred heat treatment is isothermal
annealing, which provides a ferrite-pearlite structure.
This structure is easier to process than the tempered
martensite structure obtained after quenching and
tempering with the same hardness [24].
To achieve the goal of the research
–
developing a
technology to improve the mechanical properties of
chromium-molybdenum steels by introducing a
modifier
–
the following methodology was applied:
Preparation of initial materials
Samples of chromium-molybdenum steel with a
carefully controlled chemical composition were
produced. Analysis was conducted to ensure
composition uniformity and eliminate foreign
impurities that could affect the results of the
experiment.
Addition of modifier
During the experiment, a modifier was selected that
affects the microstructure of the steel. Its introduction
was carried out directly during the melting process in an
optimal dosage, calculated based on preliminary
theoretical data and literature sources.
Based on the diagram (Fig. 3) for 35XHM steel, we can
determine the approximate temperature range at which
the treatment should be carried out to achieve the
desired hardness [25]. The temperature to which the
charge material is heated is much higher than the
temperature of the samples used to create the diagram;
however, it can be assumed that the target hardness
should be achieved in the range from 560°C to 610°C
with an annealing time of no more than 60 minutes.
In this temperature range, we should observe the
transformation of austenite into ferrite and pearlite, as
well as partial transformation into bainite, the amount
of which increases as the isothermal annealing
temperature decreases. In addition to temperature, the
annealing time is also important; in this regard, the
experimental material, placed in the furnace, was
extracted after 30 and 60 minutes.
Fig. 3. Diagram for 35XHM steel.
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Fig. 4 schematically shows the temperature regime of
forging throughout the thermomechanical treatment,
along with the points where the temperature was
measured. In the first part of the diagram, marked by
the black line, the temperature changes during the
plastic deformation process are shown
–
from the
beginning of heating, through three forging operations
and trimming of the molten material, until the moment
the product is placed in the furnace. The second part
of the diagram, marked by colored lines, demonstrates
the predicted course of the isothermal annealing
process. This process could not be measured during
the industrial process. However, it can be inferred from
the formed microstructure, as heat is released during
the phase transformation of austenite to pearlite. This
is why the actual temperature of the modified
chromium-molybdenum steel products may differ from
the temperature of the experimental sample, and this
difference is greater the more pearlite was formed
during the annealing treatment. The use of modified
chromium-molybdenum steel products
–
the pilot ones
–
was intended to regulate the temperature in the
furnace; however, due to the high thermal inertia of the
furnace, an increase in temperature was not observed
after the annealing of only two modified chromium-
molybdenum steel products.
Fig. 4. Dependence of temperature and time regime during thermomechanical treatment.
Forming and Cooling
Molten steel was poured into casting molds to obtain
standardized samples, followed by controlled cooling
to minimize thermal stresses.
Heat Treatment
The same heat treatment regime was applied to all
samples (control and modified):
Quenching: heating to the austenitization temperature
followed by rapid cooling to form a martensitic
structure.
Tempering: reheating to relieve internal stresses and
increase the steel’s ductility.
Mechanical Testing
The following tests were performed to assess
improvements:
Tensile test: determining the ultimate tensile strength
and yield strength.
Hardness measurement: using the Rockwell method
(HRC).
Impact toughness test: on a pendulum impact tester to
evaluate resistance to dynamic loads.
Microstructural Analysis
Metallographic analysis was performed using optical
and electron microscopes. The following were
examined:
Grain size and uniformity of distribution.
Phase composition and number of carbide inclusions.
Presence and distribution of defects in the crystal
lattice.
Corrosion Resistance Analysis
Modified samples were subjected to corrosion tests in
an aggressive environment to assess their resistance to
chemical impacts.
Results Processing
Figure 5 shows the microhardness test results for the
investigated cross-sections, performed using the Vickers
method with a load of 10N. The required hardness
range, after conversion, is from 265 HV to 305 HV,
indicated by the black dashed line. For samples
tempered at 610°C for 1 hour, most of the
measurements fall within the required range. Results
for the remaining samples are generally above the
required hardness, except for measurements taken
directly on the surface of the forging.
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Fig. 5. Hardness (HV) variation across the cross-section in the selected measurement plane for the isothermally
annealed sample.
The tests conducted on the chromoly steel samples
showed that the introduction of the modifier
significantly improved their mechanical properties. A
comparison between the control and modified
samples demonstrates the following results:
1.
Tensile Strength (MPa):
−
Control samples: 850 MPa
−
Modified samples: 970 MPa (+14%)
2.
Impact Toughness (J/cm²):
−
Control samples: 30 J/cm²
−
Modified samples: 45 J/cm²
3.
Hardness (HRC):
−
Control samples: 25 HRC
−
Modified samples: 32 HRC
4.
Corrosion Resistance (Points):
−
Control samples: 3 points
−
Modified samples: 1 point (improved
corrosion resistance)
Microstructural Analysis
The microstructure investigation confirmed the
positive impact of the modifier:
−
Formation of a fine-grained structure, which
enhances ductility and impact toughness.
−
Reduction in grain size and uniform
distribution of carbide inclusions, which
improves the wear resistance of the material.
Applications of the Improved Steel
The enhanced chromoly steels can be used in the
following industries:
−
Energy sector: pipes and vessels under high
pressure and temperature.
−
Mining industry: machine parts, mill liners,
excavator buckets.
−
Oil and gas industry: pipelines for aggressive
environments.
−
Aerospace and automotive industries: engine
and transmission components.
−
Construction: structures for low-temperature
applications.
Effect of Modifiers on Steel Properties
Modifiers have a comprehensive impact on the steel's
microstructure, providing:
1.
Grain structure refinement
–
grain refinement
improves strength and prevents brittle failure.
2.
Phase composition stabilization
–
uniform
distribution of carbide phases increases wear
resistance.
3.
Reduction of crystal lattice defects
–
reducing
residual stresses prevents cracking.
4.
Improved corrosion resistance
–
the formation
of a protective layer increases resistance to aggressive
environments.
5.
Improved heat resistance
–
the material retains
its properties at high temperatures.
Only the sample annealed at 610°C for 60 minutes (Fig.
6) demonstrated a hardness in the required range of
249-280 HV. It should also be noted that the highest
hardness was achieved in the forgings annealed at
580°C, rather than at 560°C, as might have been
expected.
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Fig. 6.
Results of Brinell hardness tests for products made of modified chromoly steel at different isothermal annealing
times and temperatures.
Final Results
Experimental studies showed that the use of the
modifier allows achieving the following:
−
A 10-15% increase in strength.
−
A 20-25% increase in impact toughness.
−
A 30% reduction in wear during friction.
−
A 40-50% extension in equipment service life.
Thus, the application of the modifier significantly
improves the properties of chromoly steel, expanding
its industrial applications and increasing the reliability
of structures.
The standard heat treatment of products made from
modified chromoly steel consists of quenching and high-
temperature tempering. After annealing at 860°C, the
chromoly steel is rapidly cooled in oil to ambient
temperature (Fig. 7). It is then cleaned from oil and
heated to the tempering temperature. Hardness
changes in the modified chromoly steel occur after
quenching. Since there is no immediate need for
tempering of the products, the first tempering can be
carried out at a different site or in the same furnace
after a certain time, required for temperature change.
This heat treatment method provides product flexibility,
though it is associated with high energy consumption.
Fig. 7.
Diagram of the heat treatment process consisting of oil quenching and high-temperature tempering.
Испытания
также
были
проведены
на
микротвердость с помощью метода Виккерса с
нагрузкой 10Н (рис. 8). Из диаграммы можно
сделать вывод, что большинство точек измерения
находятся в пределах требуемого диапазона
твердости. Для проверки того, соответствует ли
поковка требованиям, также было проведено
испытание на твердость по методу Бринелла в
соответствии
с
требованиями
заказчика,
описанными
ранее.
Результаты
измерений
подтвердили, что исследованная поковка
приобрела твердость 275 HB, и таким образом, она
была в требуемом объеме 249
-280 HB.
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Fig. 8.
Changes in hardness (HB) across the cross-section in the selected measurement plane for a product that was oil
quenched and tempered.
For a more accurate comparison of mechanical
properties, plastometric studies of samples cut from
the forging were also conducted. The results show that
the strain-hardening curves are very similar (Fig. 9) for
both the modified chromoly steel products subjected
to isothermal annealing immediately after the forging
process and for the modified chromoly steel products
from serial production, which underwent quenching
followed by high-temperature tempering. In this case,
the presented samples were obtained from the forging
that was previously found to be most suitable for the
requirements, i.e., from the forging annealed at 610°C
for 60 minutes. The maximum true stresses, before the
sample failure, reached values in the range of 1050 MPa
to 1100 MPa for both types of modified chromoly steel
products.
Fig. 9.
Stress-strain curve of samples cut from the quenched product and the product subjected to isothermal
annealing at 610°C for 60 minutes.
CONCLUSION
Based on the conducted research, it can be concluded
that the heat treatment performed directly at the
forging temperature provides the modified chromoly
steel products with the required properties,
comparable to the results of standard heat treatment. A
comparison of the proposed technology with current
manufacturing processes confirms that the obtained
characteristics meet the customer's requirements.
Despite
the
formation
of
a
ferrite-pearlite
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microstructure, the hardness of the forging turned out
to be comparable to the hardness achieved after
quenching
and
subsequent
high-temperature
tempering. This contributes to the simplification of
further processing, reducing its labor intensity.
Furthermore, the analysis of the "stress-strain" curves
showed that the mechanical properties of the forgings
produced in serial production and the products
subjected to isothermal annealing immediately after
forging exhibit similar behavior.
The use of isothermal annealing demonstrates the
importance not only of temperature but also of
process duration. This creates certain challenges when
implementing
the
technology
into
industrial
production, as the annealing time is limited by the
length of the line and the minimum permissible speed
of its operation. Moreover, isothermal annealing is a
continuous process, during which it is not possible to
immediately control its results. This significantly
distinguishes it from traditional quenching and
tempering, where hardness measurements after
quenching can be used to accurately select the optimal
tempering temperature. Therefore, it is essential to
carefully define the process parameters before starting
the production.
In the automotive industry, forging is typically carried
out on crank presses, whose kinematic characteristics
are structurally defined and cannot be altered during
operation. This is a significant difference from other
metalworking methods, such as rolling, where the
degree and speed of deformation can be controlled at
each stage of the process, allowing the management of
thermomechanical
treatment
parameters
and
achieving predictable results. In industrial forging,
changing thermomechanical conditions significantly
complicate the accurate prediction of microstructural
evolution.
The proposed heat treatment technology also has
certain drawbacks. One of them is the need for
investments in a new high-efficiency heat treatment
line, which should match the productivity of the
forging equipment. Moreover, such a line must be
located directly next to the forging or trimming press.
In this production setup, it becomes impossible to
make adjustments to the properties of the forgings at
intermediate stages. Therefore, experimental studies
on various melts of the same steel grade must be
conducted before starting serial production. The data
obtained
will
help
develop
an
industrial
thermomechanical processing technology for modified
chromoly steel products using residual heat from
forging, which will result in significant energy resource
savings. With the proper design of the technological
line,
the
heat
released
during
structural
transformations can be used to maintain the working
temperature, minimizing energy costs for equipment
operation.
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