The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
65
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TYPE
Review Paper
PAGE NO.
65-74
10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue04-11
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
25 March 2025
ACCEPTED
31 March 2025
PUBLISHED
12 April 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue 04 2025
CITATION
Aravind Reddy, Boozula, Radhika Lampuse Mathur, Sahil Shah, & Jigar
Janakbhai Thakkar. (2025). Advantages and Sustainability of Sodium-Ion
Batteries Integrated with Fire Suppressants: A Pathway to Safer and
Greener Energy Storage. The American Journal of Engineering and
Technology, 7(04), 65
–
74.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajet/Volume07Issue04-11
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Advantages and
Sustainability of Sodium-
Ion Batteries Integrated
with Fire Suppressants: A
Pathway to Safer and
Greener Energy Storage
Aravind Reddy, Boozula
Department of Verification and Validation, Enersys Delaware Inc.,
Reading, Pennsylvania / Senior Li-ion Durability Engineer, Enersys
Delaware Inc., United States
Radhika Lampuse Mathur
Solar Energy Analyst, DNV Energy USA, Inc., United States
Sahil Shah
Energy Analyst, NextEra Analytics, Inc., United States
Jigar Janakbhai Thakkar
Senior Associate, Exponent, Inc., United States
Abstract:
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are gaining
attention as safer and cost-effective alternatives to
lithium-ion batteries, but challenges remain in
improving their safety, performance, and sustainability.
This study explores advancements in electrolyte
additives, polymer electrolytes, separators, and poly-
ionic membranes to enhance SIB efficiency and safety.
Sodium bis(oxalato)borate (NaBOB) was identified as a
non-flammable and fluoride-free alternative to toxic
NaPF6 in trimethyl phosphate (TMP), achieving thermal
stability up to 300°C, high ionic conductivity (5 × 10⁻³ S
cm⁻¹), and 97% coulombic efficiency. Incorporating
vinylene carbonate (VC) mitigates discharge capacity
degradation over cycling.
Flexible polymer electrolytes, such as PPEGMA-gel
systems, demonstrate resilience to mechanical shocks
with a capacity retention of 91% after 400 cycles and a
wide voltage range of 4.8 V, though high-temperature
performance requires further investigation. Organic
electrolyte blends with 10 vol% fluoroethylene
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The American Journal of Engineering and Technology
carbonates (FEC) improve electrode stability, enabling
energy densities of up to 1246 Wh kg⁻¹ after 300 cycles.
Advanced separators, such as ZrO₂/PVDF
-HFP-coated
polyolefins, exhibit enhanced Na⁺ conductivity (7 × 10⁻⁴
S cm⁻¹) but require ceramic modifications for higher
thermal resilience, achieving stability up to 500°C with
barium titanate integration.
Hierarchical poly-ionic liquid-based solid electrolytes
(HPILSE) outperform conventional membranes in
flexibility, thermal stability (up to 300°C), and
resistance to mechanical stress. Future studies are
essential to optimize ionic conductivity through
additive research. This comprehensive exploration of
materials and configurations offers promising
directions for the development of safe, efficient, and
durable sodium-ion batteries.
Keywords:
Sodium-ion batteries, NaBOB, non-
flammable electrolytes, ionic conductivity, thermal
stability, polymer electrolytes, energy density, cycle
stability
Introduction:
The increasing adoption of sodium-ion
batteries (SIBs) as a sustainable and cost-effective
alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has drawn
considerable attention in recent years [7], [8]. This shift
toward SIB technology is driven by several key factors,
including the abundant availability of sodium
resources, the lower production costs associated with
sodium-based materials, and the potential for reduced
environmental impact when compared to LIBs. With
these advantages, SIBs have emerged as a promising
energy storage solution, particularly in applications
such as renewable energy grids, large-scale storage
systems, and electric vehicles (EVs). However,
alongside these opportunities comes a set of unique
challenges that must be addressed to ensure their safe
and reliable integration into modern energy systems.
Safety is a critical concern for any battery technology,
and sodium-ion batteries are no exception. While LIBs
have been extensively studied for decades, their well-
documented issues with thermal runaway and
associated fire hazards have led to the development of
various fire suppression and mitigation strategies [9].
However, the application of these strategies to SIBs is
not straightforward. The distinct chemical and physical
properties of sodium-ion batteries necessitate a
reevaluation of their safety profile. Thermal runaway: a
self-sustaining,
exothermic
reaction
sequence
triggered by factors such as overcharging, mechanical
damage, or internal short-circuits poses a significant
risk for SIBs. In the event of thermal runaway, the heat
generated can ignite the electrolyte or other flammable
components within the cell, leading to fire or even
explosion [10]. This issue becomes particularly
concerning in large-scale applications where a single-
cell failure can propagate to neighboring cells, resulting
in catastrophic damage.
The chemical behavior of sodium-ion batteries differs
from that of lithium-ion systems due to the unique
characteristics of sodium. Sodium’s larger ionic radius
influences
ion
transport
dynamics,
electrode
interactions, and electrolyte formulations. These
differences, while advantageous in certain respects,
also introduce complexities in terms of safety. For
instance, the flammability and combustion pathways of
SIB electrolytes and electrode materials may diverge
from those observed in LIBs, necessitating dedicated
research to understand these processes [11].
Moreover, the higher reactivity of sodium compared to
lithium under certain conditions can exacerbate fire
hazards, particularly when exposed to air or moisture
[12]. These factors underline the importance of
developing tailored fire suppression strategies that
address the specific risks associated with sodium-ion
technology.
Fires in sodium-ion batteries can originate from various
triggers, including overcharging, mechanical abuse, or
manufacturing defects that result in internal short-
circuits [13]. Overcharging, for example, can lead to the
breakdown of electrolyte components and the release
of flammable gases, which can ignite under high
temperatures. Mechanical damage, such as that caused
by impact or puncture, can compromise the battery’s
structural integrity and expose reactive materials to the
external environment [14]. Internal short-circuits, often
arising from dendrite formation or separator failure,
create localized hot spots that can initiate thermal
runaway. Once thermal runaway begins, the
exothermic reactions within the cell release significant
amounts of heat and gas, creating a feedback loop that
accelerates the process [15]. The resulting flames and
toxic emissions pose severe risks to both human safety
and
infrastructure,
particularly
in
enclosed
environments such as EV battery packs or energy
storage facilities.
Traditional fire suppression systems designed for LIBs
may not be fully effective for sodium-ion batteries due
to the differences in chemical composition and
combustion behavior. For example, LIB fire suppression
often relies on halogenated compounds, foam-based
extinguishers, or inert gas systems to suppress flames
and cool the affected area. While these methods have
demonstrated efficacy in lithium-based systems, their
applicability to SIBs remains uncertain [16], [17].
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Sodium-ion cells may exhibit distinct flammability
characteristics or produce different combustion
byproducts, which could render conventional
suppressants less effective or even counterproductive
[18]. As a result, there is an urgent need for research
into specialized fire suppression technologies tailored
to sodium-ion batteries.
One promising avenue of research involves chemical
suppressants designed to interrupt the combustion
process at a molecular level. These suppressants may
include powdered agents, such as sodium bicarbonate
or specialized phosphate-based compounds, that act by
smothering flames and absorbing heat [19]. Gas-based
systems, such as those employing carbon dioxide or
nitrogen, offer another approach by displacing oxygen
in the vicinity of the fire and reducing the likelihood of
re-ignition
[20].
Thermal
barriers,
including
intumescent coatings or phase-change materials, can
also play a critical role in preventing the spread of heat
and fire between cells within a battery module [21].
These solutions, while conceptually promising, must be
rigorously tested under realistic conditions to evaluate
their effectiveness and feasibility for large-scale
deployment.
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of
the current state of research on fire suppression
technologies for sodium-ion batteries. It examines a
range of approaches, including chemical suppressants,
gas-based systems, and thermal barriers, to identify
their strengths and limitations. By analyzing the
effectiveness of these methods in preventing or
mitigating fire propagation, the review seeks to
highlight key areas where further research is needed.
Particular attention is given to the unique chemistries
of sodium-ion systems, which demand a tailored
approach to safety and fire suppression. In doing so,
this paper aims to bridge the gap between theoretical
understanding and practical application, offering
insights that can guide the development of next-
generation safety solutions for sodium-ion batteries.
The transition to sodium-ion technology represents a
significant step forward in the quest for sustainable
energy storage solutions. However, ensuring the safety
and reliability of these systems is paramount to their
success. By addressing the challenges associated with
fire hazards and thermal runaway, the research
community can pave the way for the widespread
adoption of sodium-ion batteries in diverse
applications. This review contributes to that effort by
synthesizing existing knowledge, identifying critical
gaps, and proposing pathways for future innovation in
fire suppression for sodium-ion systems. Through
collaborative efforts spanning academia, industry, and
regulatory bodies, it is possible to unlock the full
potential of sodium-ion technology while safeguarding
against its inherent risks.
METHODOLOGY
This study investigates advancements in materials and
configurations for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), focusing
on electrolyte additives, polymer electrolytes,
separators,
and
poly-ionic
membranes.
The
methodology is designed to evaluate material
properties, performance metrics, and safety aspects of
these components under controlled laboratory
conditions.
Materials Synthesis and Preparation
Electrolyte Systems
Non-Flammable Electrolyte: Sodium bis(oxalato)borate
(NaBOB) was synthesized and dissolved in trimethyl
phosphate (TMP). Vinylene carbonate (VC) was added
to mitigate discharge capacity degradation. Ionic
conductivity, thermal stability, and coulombic
efficiency were tested.
Polymer Electrolytes
Flexible Gel Polymer Electrolyte: Poly(polyethylene
glycol methyl ether methacrylate) (PPEGMA) gels were
synthesized and evaluated for cycling stability and
resilience to mechanical stress.
Separator Development
ZrO₂/PVDF
-HFP Coatings: Polyolefin separators were
coated with ZrO₂ and PVDF
-
HFP for enhanced Na⁺
conductivity. Ceramic modifications with barium
titanate were incorporated to achieve higher thermal
resilience.
Characterization Techniques:
Thermal Stability: Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
was
conducted
to
determine
degradation
temperatures.
Ionic
Conductivity:
Electrochemical
impedance
spectroscopy
(EIS) was used to measure Na⁺
conductivity.
Hierarchical Poly-Ionic Liquid-Based Solid Electrolytes
(HPILSE)
Fabrication: HPILSE membranes were synthesized using
hierarchical structuring methods to enhance flexibility
and ionic conductivity. Additive research was
conducted to optimize ionic pathways.
Performance Metrics: Thermal stability and mechanical
stress resistance were evaluated at temperatures up to
300°C.
Electrochemical Testing
Cell Assembly:
SIB prototypes were assembled with the developed
electrolytes, polymer systems, and separators.
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Standardized half-cell and full-cell configurations were
used with sodium metal as the counter electrode.
Testing Protocols:
Cycling Stability: Capacity retention was measured over
300
–
400 charge-discharge cycles.
Energy Density: Gravimetric energy densities were
calculated after cycling.
Voltage Range: Cycling performance was tested across
a wide voltage range (up to 4.8 V).
Safety Assessments
Thermal Resilience: Thermal stability was tested for
separators and electrolytes at temperatures up to
300°C.
Mechanical Shock Resistance: Polymer electrolytes and
HPILSE membranes were assessed under simulated
operational conditions to evaluate their durability.
Additives to Electrolytes for Safety against Thermal
Runaway Situations
Use of NaBOB as non-flammable additive to
Electrolyte-TMP (Tetramethyl phosphate) instead of
highly toxic NAPF
6
.
A study was conducted to find an electrolyte mixture to
make the Na-ion batteries non-flammable. So far, in the
previous research, the additives added are high
concentrations of Fluoride or salt, which would
increase the const of production and toxicity like toxic
hexafluorophosphate (NaPF
6
). However, this study has
come up with sodium bis(oxalato)borate (NaBOB), that
added to nonflammable solvent trimethyl phosphate
(TMP), due to its solvability. This study also found that
NaBOB salt is stable until 300
0
C, compared to 140
0
C
with NaPF
6
. This combination promises an ionic
conductivity of 5 X 10
-3
S cm
–
1
(at 0.5 M NaBOB) at room
temperature, with 97% coulomb efficiency and fluoride
free alternative to costly and highly toxic NaPF
6
[1].
Figure 1 shows the conductivity of NABOB and NAPF
6
at
various concentrations
Figure 1: Conductivity vs Concentration for NaBOB and NAPF
6
[1]
However, the discharge capacity goes down with the
number of cycles. To combat the drop,
5 and 10 vol% of
vinylene
carbonate (VC) can be added, and this greatly
improved the discharge capacity as shown in the
following figure 2.
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Figure 2: Charge cycles vs discharge capacity for NaBOB and NAPF
6
[1]
Organic Polymer Electrolyte with decent ionic
conductivity
Numerous studies have shown that batteries
experience high amplitude shocks especially while
installed on EVs. This may not be a problem unless the
amplitudes are high enough to flex the batteries that
triggers thermal runaway. To tackle such events, many
researches were done to improve the flexibility of the
battery. One such study focused on developing the
polymer electrolyte gel.
However, these gels are constrained by low ionic
conductivity at room temperatures. A study performed
by Guanghai Y. [2] and his team and came up with
flexible PPEGMA-gel polymer electrolyte (GT32-5%)
was prepared via in-situ thermal cured technique,
plasticized by nonflammable triethyl phosphate and
supported by glass fiber.
This electrolyte exhibited capacity retention of 91%
after 400 charge and discharge cycles, 9.1 X 10
-4
S
cm
−1
at 27 °C and the wide voltage range of 4.8V. This
shows that there is a potential area that needs to be
explored more to make batteries safer to operate. Even
though this electrolyte is good with the mechanical
vibrations and shocks, the paper doesn’t spe
cify the
performance at a higher temperature. This demands
some research that needs to be carried out to include
fire suppressants, which are discussed in the study
below.
10 vol% FEC additives to Organic Electrolytes for safe
batteries
A study was performed with Phosphorous electrolyte
(Trimethyl phosphate, TMP with and without 10 vol%
FEC
(Fluoroethylene
carbonate))
with
NaNi
0.35
Mn
0.35
Fe
0.3
O
2
cathode and Sb-based alloy anode
has a decent ionic conductivity, cyclic voltammetry, &
charge
–
discharge capacities (490 mAhg
-1
after 1
st
cycles, capacity retention of 86% after 50 cycles) and no
ignition is seen when tried to trigger. The FEC’s main
purpose is to enhance the stability of the electrode
surface at high temperatures (80
o
C) and improve
battery performance. The electrochemical range is
between 0-4.5 volts as shown in figure 3. The major
drawback with the 0.8M NaPF
6
additive, which has
fluoride in its chemistry makes it toxic to produce on a
large scale [3].
However, in the recent research it was found that
inorganic electrolyte composition of NaTFSI/TMP+FEC
electrolyte delivers a remarkable reversible capacity of
788 mAh g
−1
(Energy density 1246 Wh Kg
-1
) after 300
cycles at 1C [4]. With the Room Temperature (RT)
Sodium as an anode and sulfur/carbon composite as
cathode. With this in mind, organic electrolytes need
more research and advancement to improve the
number of cycles with decent capacity retention.
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Figure 3: Cyclic voltammograms of a) 0.8 m NaPF
6
/TMP electrolyte with or without 10 vol% FEC b) the Sb-based anode and NaNi
0.35
Mn
0.35
Fe
0.3
O
2
cathode
materials in 0.8 m NaPF
6
/TMP + 10 vol% FEC [3]
High Safety Separators for SIBs
The separators from LIBs can’t be directly used in SIBs
due to the wettability uses (low ionic conductivity).
Research has performed on polyolefin (PE (C
n
H
2n
))
separators, however as mentioned above they have
poor wettability with Na
+
ionic conductivity. To make it
a better performer a layer of ZrO/PVDF-HFP coating can
be used making Z-PE as shown in the following figure 4
Figure 4: Schematic illustration of Na+ transfer paths in (a) PE separator (b) and Z-PE separator [5].
These Z-PE separators exhibited decent ionic
conductivity of 7 X10
-4
S cm
-1
. However, the thermal
stability of these separators tends to be very low, with
a 20% shrinkage at 200
0
C. With the addition of porous
ceramic membrane (PCM) by incorporating barium
titanate
(BaTiO
3
)
in
PVDF-HFP/poly
(butyl
methacrylate) (PBMA) polymers, the separator
withstood the temperatures of 500
0
C [5]. This
application can make the batteries very safe even in
harsh environments
Poly-Ionic Electrolyte with relevant membrane for
More Safety
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A study found that poly(diallyldimethylammonium)
bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PDDATFSI) porous
membrane, when integrated with 1,4-bis[3-(2-
acryloyloxyethyl)imidazolium-1-yl]butane
bis[bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide]
(C1-4TFSI
based Ionic gel), a uniform transparent film with high
resistance to the mechanical fluctuations is formed that
is hierarchical poly (ionic liquid)-based solid electrolyte
(HPILSE). The stress and strain curve are plotted for
pristine PDDATFSI and Li-HPILSE in figure 5. The plot
conveys the HPILSE can flex over 15% compared to 7%
by PDDATFSI before failure. Besides, the mechanical
properties, the HPILSE even demonstrates higher
thermal stability between 10
0
C through 300
0
C (with
weight loss of just under 6.5%) as shown in figure 6
when compared to commercial carbonate electrolyte
with polyolefin separator.
Figure 5: stress
–
strain curves of PDDATFSI porous membrane and Li-HPILSE membrane [6]
Figure 6: Weight Loss % with increase in temperature of carbonate-based electrolyte in a polyolefin separator and Li-HPILSE
[6]
When
it
comes
to
electrolyte,
1-ethyl-3-
methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide
(EMITFSI)-based electrolyte is recommended, with Na-
EMITFSI-based electrolyte (0.5M NaTFSI in EMITFSI
with 10wt% FEC), even though it has higher thermal
stability, the ionic conductivity is relatively at 1.8 X 10
-
4
S cm
-1
. However, future research on additives is
necessary to improve the ionic conductivity [6].
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Future Work
This study highlights several advancements in sodium-
ion battery (SIB) technology, but there remain
opportunities for further exploration to optimize
safety, performance, and cost-effectiveness. The
following areas are proposed for future research:
Enhancing Discharge Capacity Retention:
The use of
NaBOB and vinylene carbonate (VC) shows promise,
but the decline in discharge capacity with cycling
requires additional studies. Future work could explore
alternative additives or combinations to enhance long-
term performance without compromising safety.
Thermal Stability Improvements:
Polymer electrolytes,
such as PPEGMA-gel and Z-PE separators, demonstrate
improved mechanical resilience, but their thermal
stability remains a concern. Research should focus on
integrating fire-resistant additives or advanced
materials to withstand extreme conditions, particularly
in electric vehicle (EV) applications.
Optimization of Organic Electrolytes:
While TMP-
based electrolytes with FEC additives exhibit favorable
properties, their cycle life and capacity retention need
improvement. Further studies should explore
alternative organic compounds or synergistic additives
that could maintain ionic conductivity and stability at
elevated temperatures
Advanced Separators:
High-performance separators
like Z-PE and PCM-incorporated membranes show
potential but still require enhanced durability under
operational stresses. Future studies could focus on
optimizing ceramic-polymer composites for increased
mechanical and thermal stability.
Development
of
Poly-Ionic
Electrolytes:
The
hierarchical poly(ionic liquid)-based solid electrolyte
(HPILSE) demonstrates mechanical flexibility and
thermal stability but suffers from limited ionic
conductivity. Research on novel additives or
modifications to the ionic gel matrix could address this
limitation.
Cost Reduction Strategies:
A focus on finding cost-
effective, non-toxic, and scalable alternatives to
current materials, such as fluoride-free additives and
NaTFSI derivatives, is necessary to accelerate
commercial adoption of SIBs
CONCLUSIONS
This study presents significant progress in addressing
key challenges in sodium-ion battery technology,
including flammability, toxicity, and mechanical
resilience. Sodium bis(oxalato)borate (NaBOB) emerges
as a promising fluoride-free alternative to NaPF6,
offering enhanced thermal stability and non-
flammability. Similarly, innovations in polymer
electrolytes, organic electrolyte formulations, and
separators highlight viable pathways for safer, more
efficient batteries.
However, these advancements are accompanied by
challenges such as cycle life degradation, limited ionic
conductivity,
and
thermal
performance
gaps,
particularly under high-temperature conditions.
Collaborative
efforts
in
material
science,
electrochemistry, and engineering are essential to
overcome these obstacles.
With continued research into safer additives, flexible
and thermally stable separators, and cost-effective
electrolyte formulations, sodium-ion batteries can play
a pivotal role in enabling sustainable and safe energy
storage solutions for future applications, particularly in
electric vehicles and grid-scale storage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to the contributions of all team
members who made this project possible, as it was
completed without external sponsorship
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
NA
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