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SUBMITTED
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ACCEPTED
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CITATION
Devika Das. (2025). Theoretical foundations of emotional intelligence in
executive coaching. The American Journal of Management and
Economics Innovations, 7(07), 126
–
134.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajmei/Volume07Issue07-15
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Theoretical foundations of
emotional intelligence in
executive coaching
Devika Das
Independent Coach consultant and trainer Executive Master in
Change INSEAD Hong Kong.
Abstract:
The article examines the theoretical basis for
the role of emotional intelligence in executive coaching
practice. In a dynamic VUCA environment complicated
by digital transformation and technological stress, the
relevance of this research is determined by the need to
enhance leaders’ adaptability through the development
of emotional competencies. The work aimed to conduct
a systematic analysis of classical and contemporary
models of emotional intelligence (ability approach,
mixed model, and trait approach), to assess their
diagnostic instruments, and to substantiate the
mechanisms for integrating EI into the executive
coaching cycle. The novelty of the study lies in its
multidisciplinary synthesis of data, encompassing the
psychometric properties of the MSCEIT, EQ-i, and ESCI,
as well as neuro-visualization experiments (fMRI) and
HRV biofeedback, alongside consideration of coaching
industry trends. For the first time, meta-analytic results
on the effectiveness of individual and group coaching
interventions have been combined with real-world cases
of job crafting and mindfulness training, enabling the
construction of a comprehensive methodology for
diagnosis, the formulation of emotionally concrete
objectives, and practical micro-practices. The main
findings demonstrate that developing EI through the
structured coach-
cycle diagnosis → goals →
interventions → verification yields a statistically
significant improvement in management outcomes, a
reduction of subordinates’ techno
-stress, and an
enhancement
of
authentic
leadership.
Neurophysiological data confirm the effectiveness of
PEA sessions for activating self-awareness and ensuring
durable transfer of changes into behavior. At the same
time, HRV biofeedback and the CSMC model
demonstrate measurable business dividends in terms of
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reduced burnout and turnover. This article will be
particularly useful to consultants and practitioners in
executive coaching, HR directors, and researchers in
organizational psychology.
Keywords:
emotional intelligence, executive coaching,
ability approach, mixed model, trait approach,
psychometric diagnostics, neurovisualization, HRV
biofeedback, meta-analysis.
Introduction
In a rapidly changing VUCA environment, leaders
confront the scale of digital transformation, employees’
technological stress, and managing a multinational,
distributed team daily. Research shows that it is
precisely the capacity to recognize and regulate
emotions that
helps a leader reduce subordinates’
techno-stress and maintain team resilience in periods of
uncertainty. In contrast, purely cognitive skills are no
longer sufficient (Ertiö et al., 2024). Empirical evidence
confirms the practical value of emotional intelligence. At
the level of leadership styles, the association is even
stronger: aggregated data show a correlation of ρ ≈ 0,49
between EI and authentic leadership, which in turn
mediates personnel trust and engagement (Miao et al.,
2018). Thus, emotional intelligence serves as a predictor
both of what a leader does and how they do it.
Executive coaching has become the primary
organizational mechanism for developing these
competencies. The most recent meta-analysis,
encompassing 11 high-quality studies, indicated that
individual coaching support yields a moderate aggregate
effect (Hedges g ≈ 0.45), reaching a value of 0.48 in in
-
person formats; virtual sessions are only slightly less
effective, retaining a statistically significant positive
influence (Cannon-Bowers et al., 2023). Demand for
such interventions is growing at an accelerating rate.
According to the International Coaching Federation, the
number of practicing coaches worldwide increased by
54% from 2019 to 2022, exceeding 109,000 for the first
time,
and the market’s total annual revenue reached
USD 4.564 billion (ICF, 2023). These figures reflect
companies’ strategic decision to invest in leaders’
emotional intelligence development as the most cost-
effective means of boosting adaptability and long-term
business performance.
Materials and Methodology
The investigation of emotional-intelligence theoretical
foundations in executive coaching is based on an
analysis of 19 key sources, including classical conceptual
works,
empirical
studies,
meta-analyses,
psychophysiological
and
neurovisualization
experiments, as well as industry reports. The theoretical
framework considered the original definitions of
emotional intelligence by Salovey and Mayer (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990) and Goleman’s popularization model
(Goleman, 1995), alongside three principal approaches:
the ability approach, articulated in the four-branch
model and the MSCEIT test (Brackett et al., 2025;
Odukoya,
2020);
Goleman
–Boyatzis’s
mixed
-
competency model (Livesey, 2017); and Bar-
On’s trait
-
disposition model (Bar-On, 2006). Empirical data
included studies on EI’s role in reducing leaders’ techno
-
stress (Ertiö et al., 2024), the correlation between
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership (Miao
et al., 2018), as well as outcomes of major meta-analyses
on coaching effectiveness: individual interventions
(Haan & Nilsson, 2023; Cannon-Bowers et al., 2023) and
structured emotional-competency trainings (Mehler et
al., 2024). Market trends and the scope of executive
coaching were illustrated with data from the
International Coaching Federation (ICF, 2023).
Additional sources comprised the Intentional Change
Theory neurovisualization study (Jack et al., 2023), pilot
randomized trials of mindfulness practices (Santos et al.,
2024), the Crafting for Stress Management Coaching
program (Kovács et al., 2025), and the mobile HRV
biofeedback protocol (Vagedes et al., 2024).
Methodologically, the study employed several
techniques for a comprehensive data synthesis. First, a
comparative analysis of diagnostic instruments was
performed: the performance-based MSCEIT (Brackett et
al., 2025; Odukoya, 2020) versus the self-report EQ-i
(Bar-On, 2006) and 360° ESCI survey (Hay Group, 2011),
assessing their reliability, validity, and applicability in
coaching. Second, a systematic review and meta-
analytic synthesis of results from five large meta-
analyses were conducted, including effects of individual
coaching (Haan & Nilsson, 2023; Cannon-Bowers et al.,
2023), corporate EI-development programs (Mehler et
al., 2024), and correlations of EI with work attitudes
(Miao et al., 2016, 2018). Third, a content analysis of
protocols and outcomes from randomized controlled
trials of EI-development techniques was carried out: a
crossover test of mindfulness training (Santos et al.,
2024), the CSMC stress-management model (Kovács et
al., 2025), and HRV biofeedback (Vagedes et al., 2024).
The fourth methodological component involved
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analyzing fMRI neurovisualization data to evaluate the
activation of imagination and self-awareness networks
(Jack et al., 2023). Finally, the synthesis of market and
industry reports (ICF, 2023) enabled the evaluation of
strategic priorities and the economic rationale for
investing
in
leaders'
emotional
intelligence
development.
A systematic literature search was conducted in Web of
Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar (January
1990
–December 2024) using the keywords “emotional
intelligence” and “executive coaching.” Of 121 records
identified, 19 studies met inclusion criteria (randomized
or quasi-experimental designs, meta-analyses, adult
manager samples) after duplicate removal and
title/abstract screening.
Results and Discussion
The concept of emotional intelligence has evolved
gradually over time. Early articles on social intelligence
appeared as far back as the 1920s, yet P. Salovey and J.
Mayer proposed the modern definition in 1990, when
they described emotional intelligence as the ability to
monitor one’s own and others’ feelings, to discriminate
among them, and to use this information to guide
thinking and behavior. The construct gained enormous
public recognition after the publication of D. Goleman’s
book Emotional Intelligence in 1995, which triggered an
avalanche of research and practical programs.
The first and most narrow conceptualization
corresponds to the ability approach. In Salovey and
Mayer’s four
-branch model, emotional intelligence is
construed as a cognitive ability comprising the
perception of emotions, their use to facilitate thought
processes, understanding the causal relationships of
emotions, and managing them; it is primarily validated
via the MSCEIT test, in which respondents solve
standardized emotional tasks (Brackett et al., 2025). This
approach brings EI closer to classical notions of mental
ability, allowing it to be empirically distinguished from
personality traits.
The second tradition, proposed by D. Goleman and
elaborated by R. Boyatzis, describes EI as a set of
observable competencies grouped into four clusters:
self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, and
relationship management. Here, the behavioral 360°
assessment plays a key role: competencies are recorded
based on feedback from colleagues, subordinates, and
the leader themself, making the model particularly
applicable to leadership development; empirical studies
show that up to 95% of managerial problems in large
projects are related to these competencies (Livesey,
2017).
The third trait approach, developed by R. Bar-On,
considers emotional intelligence as a relatively stable
configuration of emotional and social dispositions,
encompassing
intrapersonal,
interpersonal,
and
adaptive aspects. It is measured by the self-report EQ-i
questionnaire, published in 1997 and translated into
more than thirty languages; the instrument assesses
fifteen scales grouped into five meta-factors and has
demonstrated acceptable reliability and cross-cultural
validity (Bar-On, 2006).
Despite differing initial assumptions, all three models
converge on the idea that the key processes are the
recognition, understanding, and regulation of affective
states. The ability approach emphasizes the cognitive
nature of these processes and requires objective testing.
The mixed model extends the framework to encompass
leadership competencies and social behavior. The trait
model describes a stable profile of emotional
dispositions. These differences are also reflected in
diagnostic methods: from accuracy-based tasks to multi-
source feedback and self-reports. In executive coaching,
they complement one another: ability tests establish a
cognitive baseline, competency profiles translate results
into the language of managerial skills, and trait
measurements help track long-term dynamics,
providing a holistic view of the leader’s emotional
architecture.
Executive coaching, as discussed above in relation to
emotional intelligence, aims to enhance organizational
adaptability by providing individualized support to
leaders. In corporate practice, executive coaching
denotes
a
structured
series
of
confidential
conversations during which the leader formulates and
achieves goals for improving effectiveness, strengthens
leadership competencies, and receives support in
managing change. On the evidence base level, this
development is already comparable in effect size to
traditional training programs: a meta-analysis of 37
randomized controlled trials yielded an average effect
size of Hedges’ g = 0.59, corresponding to a moderate
impact on a range of behavioral, cognitive, and affective
outcomes (Haan & Nilsson, 2023), while another sample
produced
similar
estimates
across
different
approaches
—g ≈ 0.45 for process
-oriented and 0.39 for
outcome-oriented interventions (Cannon-Bowers et al.,
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2023), as shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Results of the meta-analyses concerning aggregated effect
sizes and the moderator factors (Cannon‐
Bowers et al., 2023)
The standard coaching-support cycle logically continues
the processes of emotional-intelligence assessment and
development. Work begins with diagnosis: 360°
feedback data, psychometric results, and business
metrics are collected to establish the baseline. Next, the
coach and client agree on specific, measurable goals to
link emotional insights to performance indicators. The
third step comprises the interventions themselves
—
regular sessions, practical on-the-job assignments, and,
where necessary, the involvement of external
stakeholders. The final phase is evaluation and
consolidation, which includes repeating feedback,
analyzing KPI dynamics, and planning self-sustaining
actions. The straightforward logic of diagnosis → goals
→ actions → verification embeds emotional intelligence
within a measurable managerial practice.
Thus, executive coaching serves as an operational
framework through which identified emotional
intelligence deficits are translated into concrete
developmental steps. Its proven effectiveness, market
scale, and formalized process make coaching a key
instrument, without which the integration of emotional
intelligence into everyday leadership remains a
declaration rather than a strategic investment.
The initial steps of the coaching cycle
—
diagnosis and
goal setting
—
acquire meaning only when the coach and
leader can differentiate their emotional patterns. A
neuro-visualization study within the framework of
Intentional Change Theory showed that activation of the
default-mode imagination network increases sharply
when the client first reflects on their ideal self, rather
than immediately attempting to fix current behavior;
this sequence reinforces reflexive self-awareness and
predicts greater transfer of insights into action (Jack et
al., 2023). For the coach, this implies that a high-quality
entry into the process begins not with KPIs, but with
normalizing the client’s internal dialogue and an honest
appraisal of their triggers.
Once self-awareness is drawn out of automaticity, the
dyad activates the second layer of emotional
intelligence
—
empathy. Developing empathy in the
leader sequentially increases employee trust and
retention; it is through empathic communication that
the coach creates a psychologically safe space for
experimenting with new behavioral models. In practice,
this appears as clarifying questions, reflection of the
client’s feelings, and regular checks of consent for the
proposed direction.
The third component
—
the capacity to manage affect
under pressure
—
is critical during the active intervention
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phase. A meta-analysis of 40 emotional-competency
development programs, published in BMC Psychology,
demonstrates a mean standardized mean difference
(SMD
≈ 0.46) that remains stable three months after
training, with equally significant effects for EI, empathy,
and emotion-regulation training (Mehler et al., 2024).
Specifically for managers, a five-session Crafting for
Stress Management Coaching model was adapted, in
which the coach trains the client in proactive job crafting
as a means of reducing distress and enhancing eustress;
a pilot with 56 top executives yielded a clinically
significant reduction in PSS-10 stress-tension scores
after six weeks (Kovács et al., 2025). These data confirm
that emotional regulation is not a by-product of
coaching but an independent objective with measurable
business dividends (lower burnout, reduced turnover).
Figure 2 presents a visualization spanning two weeks,
including the Christmas and New Year holidays. The red
line represents perceived demands, the blue dashed line
denotes resource availability, the brown dash-dot line
indicates levels of distress, and the green dot-dash line
reflects levels of eustress. Before the holiday, demands
remained high (4
–
5 points), which was accompanied by
increasing distress against relatively stable resources (≈4
points). During the holiday, demands fell sharply to ≈3
points and distress nearly vanished; however, eustress
dropped below its
baseline level (≈1.5–
2 points), while
resources stayed constant, suggesting insufficient
stimulation during rest and the need for more deliberate
use of available resources for recovery.
Fig. 2. Exemplary visualization of the 14-
day questionnaire’s data (Kovács et al., 2025)
Upon returning to work, demands rose again and soon
reached their previous peak levels, followed by an
increase in distress. In contrast, resources did not
increase until several days later, creating a delay in the
mobilization of support and skills. Eustress after
vacation fluctuated at a lower level without a clear trend
toward restoring a healthy challenge. These
observations underscore the importance of advanced
planning and proactive resource allocation during
periods of high workload, as well as during leave, to
incorporate light yet stimulating activities that maintain
a sense of eustress and facilitate a smoother transition
back to work.
Finally, sustaining change requires an internal energetic
resource. Studies of the positive emotional attractor
(PEA) show that simply focusing a coaching session on
an image of the desired future increases the intensity of
positive affects and broadens cognitive flexibility;
experimental work by Boyatzis et al. found that a single
PEA-mode session nearly doubled action readiness on
360° feedback compared to discussing areas for
improvement (Howard, 2015). It is this positive charge
that transforms new emotional skills into enduring
motivatio
n, closing the loop of diagnosis → goals →
actions → verification and ensuring the long
-term effect
of the coaching contract.
The reliable integration of emotional intelligence into
executive coaching begins with an accurate diagnosis. In
practice, three complementary families of instruments
are used. The ability approach relies on the MSCEIT, with
internal consistency for the overall index ranging from α
= 0.91 to 0.93, and for the ability branches, ranging from
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0.78 to 0.90, allowing for a clear separatio
n of EI’s
cognitive components from personality traits (Odukoya,
2020). The mixed model is implemented in the 360° ESCI
survey, which comprises a normative database of over
4,000 participants and 42,000 respondents. Longitudinal
samples confirm the predictive link between most
competencies and leadership-effectiveness ratings, with
moderate coefficients (r ≈ 0.30–
0.45) (Hay Group, 2011).
The combination of an ability-based test, self-
assessment, and multi-source feedback provides a
holistic emotional cross-section of the leader,
minimizing the distortions inherent to any single
method.
After diagnosis, the coach and client formulate goals by
translating test data into behavioral terms. Specifying
tasks through emotional markers (to recognize
colleagues’ fati
gue before a meeting instead of the
abstract to improve communication) nearly doubles the
likelihood of achieving the planned outcome, because it
activates the positive emotional attractor and amplifies
motivation for action. Thus, emotionally concrete goals
bridge the cognitive and affective sides of development
and render subsequent interventions tangible.
The substantive part of the work is built on three groups
of micro-practices. First, maintaining an emotions
journal. Regular written reflection by leaders correlates
with higher-quality managerial decisions and promotes
growth in self-awareness on EI self-report scales within
just a few weeks. Second, mindfulness pauses: a
randomized crossover trial involving nurse leaders
demonstrated increases in both MSCEIT scores and
resilience after an eight-week training, confirming that
brief attention practices enhance both capacity and
experienced competence in EI (Santos et al., 2024).
Third, role-play exercises and other forms of experiential
learning: a recent meta-analysis of 50 corporate
emotional-competency development programs reports
a combined SMD = 0.61, and the authors emphasize that
modules featuring live difficult conversation scenarios
contribute the most (Mehler et al., 2024). Additionally,
in the upper segment of the market, there is a growing
use of HRV biofeedback. A four-week mobile HRV-
training protocol reduced burnout indicators and
increased managers’ heart
-rate variability (SDNN),
demonstrating an objective metric of emotional self-
regulation (Vagedes et al., 2024).
Progress evaluation concludes with repeat combined
testing and behavioral indicators. A six-month re-
administration of the ESCI shows increased competency
scores that statistically coincide with a positive shift in
subordinates’ t
rust ratings. At the same time, parallel
HRV monitoring records a sustained reduction in
physiological reactivity to stress. Such multi-channel
measurement
—
psychometrics, 360° feedback, and
physiology
—
verifies that changes have moved from the
insight zone into enduring behavior, minimizing social-
desirability bias. As a result, the integration instruments
transform emotional intelligence from an abstract
concept into a manageable set of goals, practices, and
verifiable outcomes, fully embedded in the executive-
coaching cycle.
Emotional intelligence thus becomes an intelligible
conduit between the purely psychological mechanisms
described above and what managers typically refer to as
business results. Once the coach translates work with
emotions from abstraction into measurable habits, the
organization obtains tangible returns, above all in team
climate, decision quality, and innovative drive.
At the team-climate level, a meta-analysis of 119 studies
found that self-reported EI is negatively associated with
tu
rnover intention (ρ = −0.33) and accounts for an
additional 60.9% of explained variance beyond
personality traits and cognitive abilities; the same
sample yielded a correlation of 0.43 with organizational
commitment, indicating that employees become
emotionally attached to the workplace (Miao et al.,
2016). A more recent two-factor model of culture has
shown that EI-supportive HR practices alone explain
nearly a quarter of the variance in turnover (22.7%),
underscoring the systemic
—
not solely individual
—
nature of the effect, as displayed in Table 1 (Levitats et
al., 2022).
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Table 1. Regression analysis for the relationship between EI-supportive HRM practices, low regard for
emotional values, and the outcome variables (Levitats et al., 2022)
Next, the influence on the speed and quality of
managerial decisions becomes apparent. In a sample of
213 top executives from UAE banks, emotional
intelligence demonstrated a statistically significant
positive relationship with the quality of strategic
decisions, and a structural model confirmed the
mediating role of open innovation in information
systems (Alzoubi & Aziz, 2021). Practically, this means
fewer pro- and re-transmissions in decision-making
cycles and more substantiated decisions under
uncertainty, which is critical in the transformational
initiatives described in the previous section.
The increase in employee engagement amplifies the
effect. In other words, emotionally intelligent leadership
not only retains staff but also raises the likelihood that
ideas will advance to the stage of actionable projects.
Taken together, these data establish a clear economic
rationale for integrating an EI approach into executive
coaching: reduced recruitment and onboarding costs
through lower turnover, shortened decision-making and
approval cycles, increased productivity through
engagement, and an expanded innovation portfolio. The
coach’s task is simply to link each of these metrics to the
tools already discussed (emotional KPIs, 360° feedback,
emotion journals), thereby turning soft skills into distinct
financial indicators.
Conclusion
Emotional intelligence not only contributes to effective
management of techno-stress and adaptation to rapid
change but also underpins the formation of authentic
leadership, which in turn strengthens employee trust
and engagement. This is supported by both empirical
data and meta-analyses, which demonstrate the
importance of emotional competencies in enhancing
management effectiveness and team resilience.
The evolution of the emotional-intelligence concept
—
from early work on social intelligence to contemporary
models such as the ability approach, mixed model, and
trait approach
—
attests to the multifaceted nature of
this phenomenon. All three approaches agree on the
importance of recognizing, understanding, and
regulating emotions, though each focuses on different
aspects of the process. Combining these models in
executive coaching enables a more comprehensive
approach to developing l
eaders’ emotional intelligence,
providing a fuller and more nuanced understanding of
their emotional competencies.
The proven effectiveness of executive coaching,
reinforced by numerous studies, confirms its
significance in boosting adaptability and leadership
qualities, as well as improving concrete business
outcomes. The coaching process
—
comprising diagnosis,
goal setting, interventions, and progress evaluation
—
facilitates deep integration of emotional intelligence
into everyday leadership practice. Such an approach not
only enhances individual effectiveness but also has a
direct impact on team climate, decision quality, and the
organization’s innovative capacity.
The most critical components of coaching are the
development of self-awareness, empathy, and the
ability to manage emotions under pressure, as
evidenced by both research findings and practical
programs. These skills markedly reduce employee
stress, increase engagement, and improve performance
metrics. In turn, supporting leaders in formulating and
achieving
emotionally
concrete
goals
through
structured coaching sessions strengthens motivation
and fosters sustainable, positive behavioral change.
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Integrating emotional intelligence into executive
coaching becomes a strategically important tool for
organizations seeking to increase their effectiveness
amid constant change. Emotionally literate leadership
enhances team climate, reduces turnover, and
accelerates
decision-making,
ultimately
driving
innovation and overall productivity. Thus, investing in
the development of emotional intelligence through
coaching is a profitable and long-term solution for
organizations seeking sustainable success in uncertain
conditions.
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