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PUBLISHED DATE: - 07-11-2024
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajssei/Volume06Issue11-03
PAGE NO.: -13-31
PSYCHOSOCIAL WELLBEING OF ORPHANS IN
KADUNA STATE: A COMPREHENSIVE
ASSESSMENT
Soyobi Yewande Victoria
MBBS, Oni Memorial Children Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria;
Riverside Nursing Home, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Obohwemu Oberhiri Kennedy
PhD, Department of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Global Banking
School/Oxford Brookes University, Birmingham, United Kingdom;
PENKUP Research Institute, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Suberu Omeiza Peter
MPH, Cardiorespiratory Unit, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds,
United Kingdom
Omoregie Jesse
PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Bolton, Bolton, United
Kingdom
Abayomi Olaoluwa Gabriel
PhD, Department of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Global Banking
School/Oxford Brookes University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Bewaji Aderinsola Oluwatoyin
PhD, Department of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Global Banking
School/Oxford Brookes University, Manchester, United Kingdom
Amanze Ugochukwu Reginald
PhD, Department of Psychology, University of Bolton, Bolton, United
Kingdom
Corresponding Author: Obohwemu Kennedy Oberhiri, PhD
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Open Access
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INTRODUCTION
Orphaned children face a complex array of
challenges that often go beyond the physical
necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and
education. One of the most profound challenges
these children encounter is maintaining a stable
psychosocial well-being in the absence of parental
care. In orphanages, children are typically housed
in group settings under the supervision of
caregivers who must divide their attention among
many individuals. This institutional structure,
while intended to provide support, can exacerbate
feelings of isolation, loss, and insecurity, making it
difficult for children to develop healthy
psychological and emotional coping mechanisms
(Zablotskiy, 2020; Kibachio and Mutie, 2020;
Onayemi, Imhonopi, and Oyekola, 2022). For
orphans in regions like Kaduna State, Nigeria,
where socio-economic hardships, conflict, and
inadequate healthcare further complicate their
situation, the psychosocial implications are even
more pronounced.
The psychosocial well-being of children involves
their emotional, psychological, and social
functioning, and is deeply influenced by factors
such as attachment, trauma, and social support.
For orphans, the loss of one or both parents are
often a traumatic experience that leaves deep
emotional scars. These children are more likely to
experience depression, anxiety, and other mental
health disorders due to the loss of their primary
Abstract
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caregivers, who are often the main sources of
emotional security and stability (Zeanah et al.,
2011). Orphans residing in institutional settings
face additional stressors, such as the lack of
consistent one-on-one care, which can hinder their
ability to form secure attachments. The theory of
attachment, first introduced by John Bowlby,
highlights the importance of stable and continuous
relationships in a child’s early life for emotion
al
development. When this attachment is disrupted,
as is common among orphans, children may
develop attachment disorders, characterized by
difficulties in trusting and forming relationships
(Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2011).
In Kaduna State, the orphan crisis is largely driven
by socio-economic factors such as poverty and
disease, particularly HIV/AIDS, which has
contributed significantly to the growing number of
orphaned and vulnerable children (UNAIDS, 2018;
Soyobi, Obohwemu & Suberu, 2024). According to
UNICEF, as of 2020, over 17 million children in
Nigeria were classified as orphans, with many
concentrated in states like Kaduna, where conflict
and poor healthcare services exacerbate the
situation (UNICEF, 2020). The psychosocial well-
being of these children is often compromised by
the multiple adversities they face. In addition to
the emotional trauma of losing their parents, these
children are frequently exposed to violence,
neglect, and abuse, both in their communities and
within the institutional settings designed to
protect them. These experiences can lead to a wide
range of psychological issues, including post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety,
depression, and conduct disorders (Perry, 2009;
Soyobi et al., 2024).
The institutional environment itself poses
significant challenges to the psychological well-
being of orphans. Orphanages, by their very
nature, are structured to cater to large groups of
children, which often results in a lack of
personalized attention and care. In many cases,
caregivers are overworked and undertrained,
making it difficult for them to provide the
emotional support that these children need
(Dozier et al., 2006). The high caregiver-to-child
ratio in orphanages often leads to a sense of
emotional neglect, as children may not receive the
individual attention required for healthy
emotional and social development. This lack of
emotional support can contribute to feelings of
abandonment
and
loneliness,
further
compounding the psychological trauma these
children experience. Studies have shown that
children raised in institutional settings are more
likely to develop emotional and behavioural
problems compared to children raised in family
settings (Nelson et al., 2014).
In addition to the lack of individualized care, the
social dynamics within orphanages can also
negatively impact children’s psychosocial well
-
being. Orphanages often operate with limited
resources, leading to competition among children
for attention, affection, and basic necessities. This
competitive environment can breed feelings of
insecurity and resentment, which can manifest in
behavioural issues such as aggression, bullying, or
social withdrawal (Sherr et al., 2017). Moreover,
children in orphanages are often stigmatized by
society, both because of their orphan status and
their residence in institutional care, which can
further erode their self-esteem and sense of
belonging. Social stigma, combined with the
isolation from the broader community that many
orphanage settings impose, can contribute to a
profound sense of social exclusion, which
negatively affects children’s social development
and psychological well-being (Mugisha et al., 2018;
Soyobi et al., 2024).
The psychosocial well-being of orphans is also
influenced by the degree to which they are able to
form stable and supportive relationships with
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peers and caregivers. Research suggests that the
presence of stable, nurturing relationships can act
as a protective factor against the negative
psychological effects of orphanhood (Liu, 2021;
Mlambo, 2021; Likoko et al., 2023). In orphanages
where children have the opportunity to form close
bonds with peers or caregivers, they are more
likely to exhibit resilience in the face of adversity.
However, in many orphanages, particularly those
in resource-poor settings like Kaduna, the
transient nature of caregiving staff and the high
turnover of children moving in and out of the
institution make it difficult for these relationships
to form and sustain over time (Zeanah et al., 2011).
This lack of stable, long-term relationships can
exacerbate feelings of insecurity and mistrust,
further hindering the development of healthy
psychosocial functioning.
Another
significant
factor
affecting
the
psychosocial well-being of orphans in Kaduna is
the high prevalence of trauma. Many of these
children have experienced multiple traumatic
events, including the death of their parents,
exposure to conflict and violence, and neglect or
abuse. The effects of such trauma can be long-
lasting and can severely impact a child’s emotional
and psychological development (Cicchetti, 2013).
Children who have experienced trauma may
exhibit symptoms such as hypervigilance, difficulty
concentrating, and emotional numbing, which can
interfere with their ability to engage in normal
social interactions and form meaningful
relationships. The lack of access to mental health
services in many orphanages means that these
children often do not receive the psychological
support they need to cope with their trauma,
leading to a higher likelihood of developing chronic
mental health conditions (Nelson et al., 2014).
In Nigeria, the psychosocial well-being of orphans
is further complicated by the pervasive stigma
attached to orphans and orphanages. Orphans are
often viewed as being “cursed” or “unlucky” by
their communities, which can lead to social
exclusion and discrimination. This stigma can have
a profound impact on children’s self
-esteem and
sense of identity, as they internalize the negative
perceptions held by others (Liu, 2021; Mlambo,
2021; Likoko et al., 2023). For many orphans, this
sense of social exclusion is exacerbated by the
institutional setting of orphanages, which can
create a physical and emotional barrier between
the children and the broader community. The
isolation from normal social and familial
interactions can hinder the development of social
skills and contribute to feelings of loneliness and
alienation (Mugisha et al., 2018).
Despite the numerous challenges faced by orphans
in Kaduna, there is growing recognition of the need
to address their psychosocial well-being.
International organizations such as UNICEF and
the World Health Organization (WHO) have
emphasized the importance of providing not only
for the physical needs of orphans but also for their
emotional and psychological well-being (UNICEF,
2020; WHO, 2019). Interventions aimed at
improving the psychosocial well-being of orphans
include trauma-informed care, mental health
counselling, and programs that promote social-
emotional learning. These interventions have been
shown to be effective in helping orphans develop
the resilience needed to cope with their difficult
circumstances and improve their overall
psychosocial functioning (Dozier et al., 2006).
The psychosocial well-being of orphans in Kaduna
State is shaped by a range of factors, including the
trauma of losing their parents, the institutional
environment of orphanages, and the social stigma
attached to their orphan status. These children
face significant emotional, psychological, and
social challenges, which can have long-lasting
effects on their mental health and overall well-
being. Addressing these challenges requires a
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comprehensive approach that includes not only
meeting the basic physical needs of orphans but
also providing them with the emotional and
psychological support necessary for healthy
development. This paper seeks to provide a
comprehensive assessment of the psychosocial
well-being of orphans in Kaduna, a region heavily
impacted by poverty, conflict, and high rates of
HIV/AIDS, which have led to a dramatic increase in
the population of orphaned and vulnerable
children.
By
understanding
the
unique
psychosocial challenges faced by orphans in
Kaduna, policymakers, caregivers, and mental
health professionals can develop targeted
interventions that improve the well-being of these
vulnerable children and help them lead fulfilling
lives.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
Kaduna State is located in the northwestern
geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The state capital,
Kaduna City, is one of the three major urban
centers in the state, along with Zaria and
Kafanchan. Situated along the Kaduna River, the
state covers an area of 1,190 square miles (3,080
km²) with geographical coordinates of 10°31’23”N
an
d 7°26’25”E. Kaduna is home to over 60 ethnic
groups, including the Gbayi, Hausa, Fulani, Gwong,
Atuku, Bajju, Atyab, Gure, and Ninkyop, among
others. Serving as an economic hub in the region,
Kaduna is a major trade and transportation center
connecting neighboring agricultural areas and
states (National Bureau of Statistics, Nigeria,
2021).
Research Sites
•
Adonai Orphanage Home: Established on
April 10, 2010, by Reverend Mrs. Elizabeth
Afuape, Adonai Orphanage is a non-
governmental,
non-profit,
faith-based
organization. It is located at 1B Chalawa
Crescent,
Banawa,
opposite
Dambo
International School, Kaduna South, Nigeria.
•
Mercy Orphanage Home: Founded on
November 24, 2001, by Reverend Dr. Tunde
Balanta, Mercy Orphanage Home is also a
non-governmental, non-profit, faith-based
organization. It is situated at 12-14 Kagoro
Close, Ungwan Romi, Chikun, Kaduna South,
Nigeria.
•
Jamiyarr Matan Arewa Orphanage Home:
Established on May 27, 1963, Jamiyarr
Matan Arewa is a social organization aimed
at unifying northern women and providing
them with a platform for welfare activities.
Study Design
This research employed a cross-sectional
descriptive study design. Cross-sectional studies
are observational studies that examine the
relationships between variables in a population at
a specific point in time (Polit & Beck, 2021).
Study Population
The study focused on orphans residing in
orphanages located in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Inclusion Criteria
•
Any child under 19 years of age living in an
orphanage in Kaduna.
Exclusion Criteria
•
Any child over 18 years of age or children
under 19 years who were unwilling or
unable to participate in the study.
Sample Size Determination
The sample size (n) drawn from the selected
subjects was determined using the formula below:
n = z2pq/d2
Where n=minimum sample size required,
p=0.20727, q=1-p (=0.793), z=the value of
standard normal deviation taken to be 1.96(at 95%
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confidence interval), d=sampling error tolerance
at 95% confidence interval taken to be 0.05 (5%).
n=1.962x0.207x0.793/0.052
n=0.631/0.0025=252.2
Therefore, minimum sample size required
N=252.2
However, the final sample size for a population less
than 10,000 (nf=n/(1+(n/N))
n=Initial sample size
N=Estimated population of the study area
nf =Final sample size
n=252.2
N=120
nf= 252.2/ (1+ (252.2/120)
nf= 81.3
Considering a non-response rate of 10%, the final
sample size was adjusted to:
nf = 81.3 / 0.90 = 90.3
Therefore, the final sample size was 90.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
A two-stage sampling technique was employed:
1.
Random sampling of three out of the seven
orphanages in Kaduna.
2.
Complete sampling of all children in the
selected orphanages who met the inclusion
criteria.
Mercy Orphanage Home had 46 children, 40 of
whom met the inclusion criteria and were
sampled. Adonai Orphanage Home had 46
children, all of whom were sampled. Jamiyarr
Matan Arewa Orphanage Home had 14 children, all
of whom were included in the study.
Tools of Data Collection
An
interviewer-administered
questionnaire
gathered data on the medico-social challenges
faced by children in orphanages. Some answers
were provided by caregivers. The data collection
tools included:
•
Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC):
Developed by Shakir in 1975, MUAC
measures malnutrition by determining the
circumference of the upper arm (Shakir,
1975).
•
Body Mass Index (BMI): BMI is calculated by
dividing a person's div weight by the
square of their height (kg/m²).
•
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: This 10-item
scale measures self-esteem on a four-point
Likert scale (Rosenberg, 1965).
•
Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Scale:
This scale consists of eight items to measure
the perceived strength of a person's social
support network (Cohen et al., 1985).
•
Hyperactivity/Impulsivity Disorder and
Major
Depressive
Disorder:
These
conditions were assessed using the DSM-IV
criteria (American Psychiatric Association,
1994).
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Six trained research assistants, five of whom were
500-level medical students specializing in
pediatrics and obstetrics, and one 600-level
medical student, administered the questionnaires
under the researcher's supervision. Data collection
occurred over three Saturdays from 9 am to 3 pm,
with an average of 30 respondents interviewed
each day.
DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS
All collected data were verified for eligibility, and
incomplete or blank responses were excluded. The
data were entered into SPSS version 20.0 for
analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to
summarize the demographic information, and
cross-tabulation was conducted to examine
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relationships between variables. The results were
presented in tables and charts, and the findings
were compared to previous studies on medico-
social problems in orphanages.
Ethical Considerations
•
An introductory letter from the Department
of Community Medicine, Faculty of
Medicine, ABU, Samaru, Zaria was presented
to the orphanage directors, who gave
permission for the study.
•
Informed consent was obtained from
eligible participants.
Limitations of the Study
•
Only three orphanages were studied due to
time and resource constraints.
•
More variables, such as Mantoux tests and
vitamin A levels, could not be assessed due
to resource limitations.
•
The study's cross-sectional design presents
a limitation, as it captures data at a single
point
in
time
(December
2016).
Consequently, the results reflect the
knowledge and skills of healthcare workers
only during that period. Given the potential
for evolving healthcare practices, policies,
training programs, and resource availability,
caution is warranted when interpreting the
findings in today's context. These factors
may have influenced the proficiency and
knowledge base of healthcare workers over
time. Furthermore, the reliance on self-
reported data rather than direct observation
of clinical performance introduces the
possibility of response bias. Healthcare
workers may have either overestimated
their competence or underreported gaps in
their knowledge, which could skew the
results. Future studies could benefit from
longitudinal
approaches
and
direct
assessments of clinical skills to provide a
more accurate and dynamic understanding
of healthcare workers' capabilities.
RESULTS
A total of 110 questionnaire was administered to
assess the medico-social problems of children
living in orphanages in Kaduna. A total of 100
questionnaires were retrieved with a response
rate of 91%.
Socio-demographic information of orphans living
in orphanages in Kaduna
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Socio-demographic characteristics of
respondents
Frequency (n=100)
Percentage (%)
Age (in years)
0-4
8
18.0
5-9
26
16.0
10-14
41
41.0
15-19
25
25.0
Total
100
100.0
Sex
Male
68
68.0
Female
32
32.0
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Total
100
100.0
Ethnicity
Hausa
41
41.0
Yoruba
30
30.0
Igbo
10
10.0
Birom
8
8.0
Others
11
11.0
Total
100
100.0
Religion
Islam
14
14.0
Christianity
86
86.0
Total
100
100.0
The table 1 above showed that the age group of respondents 10-14years have the highest percentage
(41%) while age group 0-4years has the least percentage of respondents (8%). There are more males
(68%) than female (32%) respondents. The predominant tribe is Hausa (41%), followed by Yoruba
(30%). Others include Baju, Ebira, Idoma, etc. There are more Christian (86%) than Muslim (14%)
respondents.
Table 2: Physical well-being of respondents
Variables
All the
time [n
(%)]
Most of
the time
[n (%)]
More than
half of the
time [n
(%)]
Less than
half of the
time [n
(%)]
Some of
the time
[n (%)]
At no time
[n (%)]
Total [n
(%)]
I feel well and
energetic
34(39.1)
35(40.2)
8(9.2)
8(9.2)
2(2.3)
-
100(100)
I feel physically fit
to do anything I
want
31(35.6)
35(40.2)
10(11.5)
10(11.5)
1(1.1)
-
100(100)
I am comfortable
about my weight,
shape and physical
condition
41(48.8)
29(34.5)
11(13.1)
1(1.2)
1(1.2)
1(1.2)
100(100)
I do get all the
sleep I need
37(44.0)
20(23.8)
20(23.8)
4(4.8)
3(3.6)
-
100(100)
I am free from
unexplained
physical health
symptoms
29(35.8)
14(17.3)
11(13.6)
2(2.5)
23(28.4)
2(2.5)
100(100)
I woke up feeling
fresh and rested
41(50.0)
18(22.0)
12(14.6)
3(3.7)
6(7.3)
2(2.4)
100(100)
My daily life has
23(28.4)
29(35.8)
23(28.4)
5(6.2)
1(1.2)
-
100(100)
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been filled with
things that interest
me
I eat good
balanced diet daily
45(54.9)
20(24.4)
7(8.5)
2(2.4)
8(9.8)
-
100(100)
I feel calm and
relax
30(36.6)
30(36.6)
14(17.1)
2(2.4)
6(7.3)
-
100(100)
I usually visit
hospital for
treatment
41(50.0)
15(18.3)
11(13.4)
7(8.5)
8(9.8)
-
100(100)
I do get all I need
anytime the need
arise
15(18.3)
15(18.3)
26(31.7)
10(12.2)
11(13.4)
5(6.1)
100(100)
I eat what I want
and not what I see
14(17.1)
13(15.9)
11(13.4)
8(7.3)
14(17.1)
24(29.3)
100(100)
From the above table, result shows that a high percentage of respondent felt well and energetic all the
time (39.1), most of the time (40.2) and none (0%) none of the time. This implies that about 80% feel well
and energetic and approximately 90% feel physically fit and comfortable with their weight, shape and
physical condition. About 46.4% of them eat what they want while majority (55.6%) eat what they see
rather than what they want, majority (83.3%) eat balanced diet likewise 81.7% visit the hospital
whenever they are ill.
Table 3: Body mass index and mid upper arm circumference of respondents
Body mass index and MUAC of
respondents
Frequency (n=95)
Percentage (%)
BMI
Underweight
51
53.7
Normal weight
35
36.8
Overweight
4
4.2
Obese
5
5.3
Total
95
100.0
MUAC (cm)
<11.0
2
28.6
11.0-12.5
2
28.6
12.5-13.5
1
14.3
>13.5
2
28.6
Total
7
100.0
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From the table above, more than half (53.7%) of the children are underweight while 36.8% weigh within
normal and 5.3% are obese. Less than half (28.6%) of respondents have severe acute malnutrition, 28.8%
also have moderate acute malnutrition, 14.3% is at risk of malnutrition and 28.6% of the respondents are
well nourished.
Clinical examination result of respondents
Signs and symptoms/Age
group
0-4(n=8)
5-9(n=26)
10-
14(n=40)
15-
18(n=25)
Total(n=95)
De-pigmentation of hair
-
-
2
1
3
Muscle wasting
-
-
-
-
-
Moon face
-
-
-
1
1
Flaky paint dermatitis
-
-
-
-
-
Oedema
-
-
Bitot spot
-
-
-
2
2
Conjuctival xerosis
-
-
-
1
1
Xerosis of the skin
-
-
-
-
-
Cheilosis
1
1
1
-
3
Magenta tongue
-
-
1
1
2
Loss of ankle and knee jerk
-
-
-
-
-
Atrophic lingual papillae
-
1
-
-
1
Spongy bleeding tongue
-
-
-
1
1
Open fontanella
-
-
-
-
-
Bow leg
1
-
-
1
2
Knock knee
3
1
2
6
Pale conjunctival
1
1
2
1
5
Enlarged thyroid gland
-
-
-
-
-
Mottled dental enamel
1
1
1
2
5
Total [n (%)]
4
7
8
13
32 (33.7)
66.3% of the respondents had no physical signs on clinical examination while 33.7% of the respondent
do.
53.3
46.7
immunisation status
n=15
fully immunized
not fully immunized
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Figure 1: Immunization status of respondents
The number of respondents that are fully immunized (53.3) were slightly higher than those that were not
fully immunized (46.7%).
Table 5: Frequency distribution of respondents with BCG scar and the immunization card seen
Table 5 above showed that 87.5% of the under-
five’s immunization card were seen and 62.5% of
them have BCG scar.
Figure 2: Frequency distribution of children that sleep under ITN
Figure 2 above showed that 87% of the respondents sleep under insecticide treated net.
4.5 Psycho-social status among orphans living in orphanages in Kaduna
Table 7: Psycho-social status of respondents lining in orphanages in Kaduna
87%
13%
Percentage of children that use ITN
use ITN
does not use ITN
Number of immunization card seen
and presence of BCG scar on
respondents among under-fives
Frequency (n=8)
Percentage (%)
Number of immunization card seen
7
87.5
Presence of BCG scar
5
62.5
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Table 7 above showed that majority (97.8%) of the children attends school, (89.7%) sought western
education and 3.4% school at home while 6.9% sought qur’anic education. Majority (80.2%) have
Mathematics and English textbooks while 19.8% do not have Mathematics and English textbooks, 18.8%
were absent from school in the last one week and majority (85.7%) of them were absent from school in
the last one week due to sickness.
Psycho-social status of respondents
Frequency (n=100)
Percentage (%)
Attends school
Yes
87
97.8
No
2
2.2
Total
89
100.0
Type of education
Western
79
89.7
Quranic
3
3.4
Home
6
6.9
Total
87
100.0
Mathematics and English
Textbook
Yes
69
80.2
No
17
19.8
Total
87
100.0
Absence from school
Yes
16
18.4
No
71
81.6
Total
87
100.0
Reasons for school absenteeism
Illness
12
85.7
Lack of school fees
2
14.3
Total
14
100.0
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Figure 4: The frequency distribution of children and their number in class
Figure 4 above showed that majority (78.5%) of the children are in a class of 20-40 persons
Figure 5: Shows the last position in school.
The figure above showed that majority (38.7%) of the children had between 11th and 20th position in
the last term.
78.50%
19.00%
2.50%
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
20-40
40-60
>60
Number of students in class
Number of students in class
34.7
21.3
38.7
5.3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1st-5th
6th-10th
11th-20th
0thers
Last position
Series 1
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Table 8: showing self-esteem status of orphans living in orphanages in Kaduna
The above table showed that 89.2% of them have good self-esteem of which majority are males (60%)
and 11.8% have poor self-esteem.
Table 9: showing the quality of social support for orphans living in orphanages in Kaduna
Table 9 above showed that majority (35.2%) had
good (25-29.9) social support score and 15.5%
have an average (16-19.9) social support score
DISCUSSION
The results of this study provide valuable insights
into the psychosocial wellbeing of orphans in
Kaduna State, and many of the findings resonate
with previous literature on the subject. One of the
primary aspects of the study is the psychosocial
wellbeing of orphans, particularly in relation to
their psychological health. It is important to frame
these findings within the broader context of
existing research to understand the scope and
implications for psychological wellbeing more
comprehensively.
A significant aspect of this study is the overall
physical and emotional health of the respondents,
many of whom reported feeling well and energetic
most of the time. This is generally consistent with
previous studies, which have often highlighted the
resilience of orphaned children despite their
challenging circumstances. However, it is
important to note that resilience should not be
mistaken for an absence of emotional or
psychological needs. Previous studies in Uganda,
for example, found that orphans displayed high
levels of physical energy and engagement in daily
activities, but also exhibited signs of psychological
distress, such as anxiety and depression, especially
those who lacked sufficient psychosocial support
Self-esteem status
Male n (%)
Female n (%)
Total (%)
Good self-esteem
46(60.5)
21(27.7)
67(89.2)
Poor self-esteem
6(7.9)
3(3.9)
9(11.8)
Social support score
(8-40)
Frequency (n=71)
Percentage (%)
16-19.9
11
15.5
20-24.9
19
26.8
25-29.9
25
35.2
>30
16
22.5
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(Ssewamala et al., 2018). In contrast to those
findings, the present study reports a low incidence
of major depressive disorder (1.8%) among
respondents, a rate that differs significantly from
studies in other parts of the world. For instance,
research in India found that 25% of orphans were
diagnosed with major depressive disorder,
suggesting that regional and cultural factors, as
well as the quality of orphanage care, may
influence
psychological
health
outcomes
(Bhargava et al., 2017).
The relatively low rates of depression observed in
this study could be attributable to the social
support systems and religious practices in Kaduna
State, which may act as protective factors. Studies
conducted in Nigeria and other sub-Saharan
African countries have demonstrated that religion
can play a key role in buffering against
psychological distress among orphaned and
vulnerable children. In regions with strong
communal ties, religious institutions often serve as
informal support networks, providing emotional
and material support that might otherwise be
lacking in formal care settings (Adedokun et al.,
2020). The high percentage of respondents
(83.3%) who reported positive peer relationships
and peer acceptance further underscores the role
of social support in mitigating the psychological
challenges associated with orphanhood. Research
has shown that children with strong peer
connections are less likely to experience feelings of
isolation and more likely to develop a positive self-
concept (Cluver et al., 2020). This finding is
consistent with studies conducted in South Africa,
where 70% of orphans reported positive
relationships with their peers, a factor strongly
correlated with better psychosocial outcomes
(Moses et al., 2017).
However, despite the generally positive peer
interactions reported, a notable percentage of
children (11.4%) reported being bullied, and 9%
felt ostracized by their peers. Bullying and peer
rejection have been well-documented as
significant contributors to emotional distress and
can have lasting effects on children’s psychological
development. A study in Kenya by Kamau et al.
(2019) found that orphans who experienced
bullying had higher rates of anxiety, depression,
and behavioural disorders compared to their peers
who were not bullied. The rates of bullying and
ostracism in the present study, while lower than in
some contexts, indicate that there are still
significant challenges in fostering a fully
supportive peer environment within orphanage
settings.
Another key aspect of psychosocial wellbeing is
self-esteem. The findings of this study, where
89.2% of respondents reported having good self-
esteem, align with previous research indicating
that children in institutional care, particularly
those who have access to education and social
support, tend to maintain a positive sense of self-
worth. This is consistent with a study in Uganda,
where orphans in foster care or orphanages who
were provided with educational support and
community
engagement
opportunities
demonstrated higher levels of self-esteem than
those who lacked such opportunities (Ssewamala
et al., 2018). Interestingly, this study also found
gender differences in self-esteem, with males
reporting higher levels of self-esteem than females.
This finding contrasts with research from Ota,
Ogun State, where females reported higher self-
esteem than males (Olajide et al., 2017). The
disparity in self-esteem levels between genders in
different regions might reflect varying cultural
expectations and societal norms regarding gender
roles, which can influence how boys and girls
perceive themselves within their communities.
The coping mechanisms employed by respondents
in this study offer another window into their
psychological wellbeing. More than half of the
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respondents (64.6%) reported being able to cope
with their situations, but the strategies they
used
—
such as distancing themselves from their
problems or modifying their goals to avoid
confronting challenges
—
suggest that many of the
children may be employing maladaptive coping
mechanisms. These findings echo research from
Ethiopia, where orphaned children demonstrated
below-average resilience scores and often resorted
to avoidance as a coping strategy (Tadesse et al.,
2021). Avoidance-based coping strategies can lead
to long-term psychological issues, as they do not
address the underlying emotional distress and can
prevent children from developing healthy ways to
process and manage their emotions. It is crucial to
consider the potential long-term psychological
impacts of these coping mechanisms, as studies
have shown that children who rely on avoidance
strategies are at greater risk for anxiety and
depression later in life (Vreeman et al., 2019).
The physical health of orphans, particularly their
nutritional status, is another important factor
influencing their psychosocial wellbeing. The
present study found that 53.7% of the respondents
were underweight, and a small percentage were
wasted (4.2%) or stunted (2.1%). These findings
are markedly lower than those of a similar study in
Imo State, which reported higher rates of wasting
and stunting (18% and 34%, respectively).
Malnutrition and poor physical health can have
direct and indirect effects on psychological
wellbeing. Children who are malnourished are
more likely to experience fatigue, irritability, and
cognitive impairments, all of which can contribute
to psychological distress and lower academic
performance (Beegle et al., 2017). Moreover,
malnutrition has been linked to increased rates of
depression and anxiety in children, particularly in
resource-poor settings where access to healthcare
and nutrition may be limited (Black et al., 2017).
The present study’s finding that 83.3% of
respondents attend school is a positive indicator of
the educational opportunities available to orphans
in Kaduna State. Education has long been
recognized as a critical determinant of
psychosocial wellbeing, providing children with a
sense of purpose, routine, and social interaction.
Research from Ethiopia has shown that orphaned
children who are successful in their schoolwork
report higher levels of psychological wellbeing
than
those
who
struggle
academically
(Woldehanna, 2020). Similarly, the finding that a
large percentage of respondents have access to
textbooks and are placed in classes of manageable
size suggests that the quality of education available
to orphans in Kaduna is relatively high. However,
the study also highlights disparities in educational
attainment, with a significant portion of children
ranking in the middle or lower portions of their
class. This could be reflective of the emotional and
psychological challenges that orphans face, which
may impede their academic performance.
Research has shown that children in orphanages
often face difficulties in concentrating and staying
motivated in school due to the trauma of losing
their parents and the instability of their living
situation (Moses et al., 2017).
In conclusion, the psychosocial wellbeing of
orphans in Kaduna State reflects a complex
interplay of factors, including physical health,
social support, coping mechanisms, and
educational opportunities. While many of the
respondents demonstrate resilience and maintain
positive relationships with their peers, there are
clear indicators of underlying psychological
distress, particularly among those who rely on
maladaptive coping strategies or experience
bullying and peer rejection. The relatively low
rates of depression and high levels of self-esteem
are encouraging, but they should not obscure the
significant challenges that remain, particularly in
addressing the nutritional needs and ensuring
access to mental health services for all orphans.
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Future research and interventions should focus on
strengthening psychosocial support systems
within orphanages and providing targeted mental
health resources to address the specific needs of
this vulnerable population.
CONCLUSION
This study highlights the significant psychosocial
challenges faced by children in orphanages in
Kaduna State, Nigeria. High rates of behavioural
disorders, including hyperactivity and enuresis,
reflect underlying psychological and emotional
issues that require urgent attention. The
prevalence of poor self-esteem among many
children underscores the need for comprehensive
psychosocial support.
Despite these challenges, most children have
access to formal education and perform well
academically, suggesting resilience and potential
for positive outcomes. Contrary to common
assumptions, the majority report low levels of
stigmatization, indicating good social integration,
which may aid their emotional resilience and
overall well-being.
Addressing these psychosocial issues through
targeted interventions is crucial for improving the
quality of life for orphans in Kaduna. Ensuring
psychological support, along with maintaining
access to education and fostering social support
systems, is essential for their long-term
development and integration into society.
Collaborative efforts between government
agencies, non-governmental organizations, and
the community are necessary to address these
multidimensional issues and enhance the well-
being of orphans in Kaduna.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the
management and technical staff of PENKUP
Research Institute, Birmingham, United Kingdom
for their excellent assistance and for providing
manuscript
writing/editorial
support
in
accordance with Good Publication Practice (GPP3)
guidelines.
FUNDING
This research did not receive any grant from
funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.
Authors’ Contributions
The entire study procedure was conducted with
the involvement of all writers.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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