The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
35
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TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
35-40
10.37547/tajssei/Volume07Issue01-05
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
24 October 2024
ACCEPTED
22 December 2024
PUBLISHED
23 January 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue01 2025
CITATION
Juraev Shohruh. (2025). Semantic similarities and differences of socio-
political lexemes in English and Uzbek official documents. The American
Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations, 7(01), 35
–
40.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajssei/Volume07Issue01-05
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Semantic similarities and
differences of socio-
political lexemes in English
and Uzbek official
documents
Juraev Shohruh
Uzbekistan state university of world languages, Uzbekistan
Abstract:
Although Uzbek and English are not
genetically related, there exist differences and
similarities in their vocabularies. Latin and Greek
borrowings play a significant role in developing both
languages. In this regard, various linguists’ scientific
perspectives are compared and examined, and an
analysis has been conducted on how these features
have been semantically explored thus far.
The research aimed to investigate polysemy in
loanwords of socio-political lexemes. Furthermore, the
following objectives were established for analysis: (1) to
examine the etymology of loanwords and distinguish
Latin and Greek loanwords; (2) to identify intermediary
languages and their effects on meanings in recipient
languages; (3) to conduct research on a specific
semantic domain; (4) to analyze the similarities and
differences of lexemes based on the context of official
texts.
In this study, official state documents, specifically the
Constitution and laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and
in English, the laws, orders, and decisions issued by the
highest authorities of countries such as Great Britain
and the United States of America, are designated as the
object of investigation. Contrastive analysis is employed
as a method to compare the features of monosemy and
polysemy of the borrowings in both languages.
The findings indicated that the English language is
geographically and genealogically closer to the Latin and
Greek languages, and the proportion of lexical units
borrowed from these languages is substantially higher
than in the Uzbek language. The research revealed
differences between the current meanings of Latin and
Greek borrowings in Uzbek and English languages,
aspects related to the fields in which the borrowed
lexemes were initially used, and the influence of
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The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
intermediary languages on semantic differentiation.
Additionally, it was observed that words actively used
in one language are infrequently employed in the
other, with their synonymous equivalents being
utilized in most instances.
Keywords:
Borrowings, donor language, recipient
language, semantic fields, polysemy, monosemy,
etymology, intermediary language, official genre.
Introduction:
The development of any language's
vocabulary is significantly influenced by other
languages. The growth of a language's lexicon often
stems from the political, economic, and cultural
interactions between its speakers and speakers of
other languages. Similarly, the Uzbek lexicon has
evolved over centuries through consistent contact with
both related and unrelated linguistic cultures
[Rahmatullayev, 2006]. In linguistics, lexical units
borrowed from one language into another are termed
as loanwords or simply borrowings. Specifically, the
language from which the lexeme is borrowed is called
the donor language, while the language that adopts
the lexeme is referred to as the recipient language.
Furthermore, borrowed words may enter a recipient
language either directly or through intermediary
languages, which are known as intermediary
languages.
For instance, English, like Uzbek, has expanded its
vocabulary over centuries by borrowing words from
Latin, French, Scandinavian, and other languages due
to historical interactions [Hogg & Denison, 2006]. In
linguistics, borrowings are studied as a distinct subject
in lexicology alongside terminology, lexicography, and
neologisms. This is because a significant portion of the
neologisms and terms found in contemporary literary
Uzbek are composed of borrowed lexemes from
foreign languages.
In English linguistics, borrowings and their theoretical
aspects have been extensively studied by scholars such
as U. Weinreich, E. Haugen, M.S. Serjeantson, and P.
Durkin. Similarly, in Russian linguistics, scholars like
D.S. Lotte, Yu.S. Sorokin, L.P. Krysin, and R.A. Budagov
have made notable contributions. In the context of
Uzbek language development, research on borrowings
has been conducted by linguists such as O. Usmonov,
R. Daniyorov, F. Abdullayev, Sh. Rahmatullayev, and H.
Dadaboyev. For example, F. Abdullayev highlighted
that the growth of international vocabulary in Uzbek,
particularly from Russian and European languages,
began in the 1930s, influenced by scientific and
technological advancements [Abdullayev, 1972].
Sh. Rahmatullayev’s theoretical perspectives on native
and borrowed layers in Uzbek emphasized the process
through which borrowings from Latin, Greek, French,
and other European languages entered Uzbek via
Russian, often highlighting the structural influence of
the mediating language [Rahmatullayev, 2006]. H.
Dadaboyev noted in his work on terminology that the
prevalence of scientific and technical terms in modern
Uzbek literary language was accelerated by the granting
of state language status to Uzbek, the nation’s
independence, and the subsequent sociopolitical,
scientific, and cultural developments [Dadaboyev,
2020].
Research indicates that Latin and Greek lexemes in
Uzbek have not entered directly but predominantly
through Russian as an intermediary. As a result, the
form and pronunciation of these borrowed words often
reflect the phonetic and morphological rules of Russian.
For instance, Uzbek words like kontsepsiya (concept)
and tsivilizatsiya (civilization) are influenced by the
Cyrillic script's representation of the "ц" sound as "ts" in
the Latin alphabet. Such processes are examples of the
influence of a dominant language on a subordinate one
within a bilingual society, where the dominant
language's features are transferred to the subordinate
language [Bloomfield, 1933].
F. Durkin has argued that if borrowed words maintain
their external and internal forms without change as they
pass through an intermediary language, the extent of
influence of the mediating language can be questioned
[Durkin, 2009].
The semantics of borrowings may remain consistent
between the donor and recipient languages or may
evolve to acquire new connotations over time [Lotte,
1982]. D.S. Lotte explained the semantic evolution of
borrowings with semantic shifts depends on the context
and its functional features.
METHODS
The comparative analysis of borrowings in English and
Uzbek, focusing on their semantic characteristics, was
conducted using contrastive linguistics methodologies.
The study employed a comparative analysis method,
widely used in linguistics, to examine the similarities and
differences in the semantic meanings of borrowings in
the two languages. According to V. Gast, comparative
analysis is effective when there is sufficient data
available in both languages to draw broad and reliable
conclusions [Gast, 2012].
M. Haspelmath emphasized that comparative linguistics
not only reveals distinctive features within individual
languages but also identifies similarities and functional
parallels across different languages. He suggested that
linguists should develop context-specific comparative
The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
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The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
frameworks to ensure accurate analysis [Haspelmath,
2010].
Based on the described methodology, the study
focused on official documents as its research material.
These included over 80 Uzbek documents from the
independence period (e.g., the Constitution of
Uzbekistan, laws, and government resolutions) and 28
English documents (e.g., the U.S. Constitution,
congressional acts, and executive orders). The analysis
aimed to identify linguistic features in both languages,
particularly in terms of borrowed lexemes.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this article, reliable sources in both Uzbek and
English were used to ensure a high degree of accuracy
in identifying Latin and Greek borrowings, particularly
focusing on the etymology of lexical units and terms.
Among the sources consulted were the Explanatory
Dictionary of the Uzbek Language and the Oxford
English Dictionary (OED), currently the largest
dictionary in the world. These sources were utilized to
examine borrowed lexicon within the selected texts.
Based on the objectives of the study, a list of over 200
Latin and Greek borrowings was compiled, specifically
focusing on words that denote social and political
vocabulary based on context of the official documents.
Given that the research focused on analyzing the
similarities and differences in the meanings of these
etymologically identical lexemes in modern Uzbek and
English, the historical process of their incorporation
into Uzbek and their characteristics as influenced by
intermediary languages were not extensively
addressed due to a lack of sufficiently reliable sources.
As a result, hypotheses based solely on external forms
of the lexemes (phonetic and morphological) were
avoided in many instances.
Tendency
–
a concept denoting an inclination or
predisposition toward a specific characteristic or
behavior.
In Uzbek normative-legal documents, the term
tendency conveys a public inclination or drive toward
a certain trend or innovation in a specific field. For
example, in the sentence: “...taking into account the
latest tendencies in the fields of economy, finance, and
taxation, financial technologies, advanced foreign
experience, and the demands of the real economy, to
train, retrain, and enhance the qualifications of highly
educated personnel,” [RUPD, 2024] the word refers to
the application of innovative economic and financial
ideas promoted among the masses in recent years.
The root of tendency derives from the Latin verb
tendere, meaning "to stretch" or "to incline," and
evolved into the noun tendentia, which denotes an
"approach" or "inclination" [OED, 2024]. Today, this
term is widely used in English, German, Russian, and
even Uzbek in the aforementioned sense. However, the
Explanatory Dictionary of the Uzbek Language provides
a second meaning: “the main idea or theme of a
thought, depiction, or work.” Interestingly, this
secondary meaning was not found in English
explanatory dictionaries.
Contingent
–
1) A lexical unit denoting a category or
group of people within a specific circle; 2) In economic
contexts, it refers to set limits or norms, such as in
transit, import, or export activities.
The second meaning of contingent is absent in the 1973
Explanatory Dictionary of Russian International Words
[Usmonov&Doniyorov,
1972].
However,
post-
independence Uzbek explanatory dictionaries reveal a
semantic expansion of this term in Uzbek. For instance,
in the Collection of International Agreements of the
Republic of Uzbekistan (2004), in an agreement
regulating
international
passenger
and
cargo
transportation by road between Uzbekistan and Italy,
the term is used as follows: “Authorized bodies
exchange annual contingents of permit forms specified
in Article 26 of this agreement” [IARU, 2004]. In this
context, contingent corresponds to the second meaning
described above.
In English, contingent as a noun aligns with its Uzbek
meanings. Furthermore, the term also functions as an
adjective in English. In official English documents,
however, the noun form contingent rarely appears. The
term originates from the Latin verb contingere and later
evolved into the nouns contingens and contingents. The
root components are con- (together) and tangere (to
touch or happen), and the term initially denoted the
likelihood of an event occurring based on random
circumstances [OED, 2024]. Over time, contingent
expanded semantically in English, Russian, and Uzbek to
reflect the concepts described above.
Norm refers to established rules or generally accepted
standards. In Uzbek literary language, norm is used in its
original form and is observed in official documents to
express a single concept. For example: “...operators of
transport vehicles must adhere to the relevant road
traffic and transport norms applicable to the area in
which they are located” [IARU, 2004]. The term norm
retains its Latin form and historically referred to strict
measurements followed by carpenters in their craft.
Over time, the term expanded to encompass broader
notions of standardization [OED, 2024].
Normative
–
“A set of economic, technical, or other
standards for implementing a speci
fic task or program.”
In Uzbek official documents, phrases such as normative
documents and normative-legal documents frequently
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The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
appear [PDRU, 2023]. In standalone cases, terms like
normative instructions and normative guidelines are
also found. In both cases, normative functions as an
adjective in Uzbek and modifies nouns such as
documents, instructions, and guidelines. The word
normative originates from the Latin normatio,
meaning "standardized" or "regulated." While the
term exists in Russian, it does not appear as a lexical
unit in English and was not observed in English-
language usage.
Principle
–
1) A fundamental rule or main idea upon
which something is based; 2) A notion reflecting
adherence to a specific rule or standard by an
individual. The term principle originates from the Latin
word principium and was later adopted into French as
principe. From French, it entered English, Russian, and
potentially Uzbek through Russian influence. For
example, in the text of the Presidential Decree of the
Republic of Uzbekistan dated September 13, 2017 (PD-
3272): “...to approve the proposal to adop
t the
principles and mechanisms for achieving monetary
policy objectives and transitioning to an inflation-
targeting regime as practiced by foreign central banks”
[PDRU, 2017]. Principle conveys the idea of essential
rules or guidelines that must be adhered to. In English
official documents, the term appears as both principle
and principal. According to the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, principle is a noun and aligns semantically
with the Uzbek term prinsip. The word principal,
however, can function as both a noun and an adjective,
making it a homonym with distinct semantic properties
[Merriam-Webster, 2024]. In the text of Resolution No.
99-12 issued by the President of U.S on February 3,
1999, the term "principle" in the statement "...to
reconfirm that the central, guiding principle of my
Vietnam policy is to achieve the fullest possible
accounting of our prisoners of war and missing in
action" [USPD, 1999] conveys the concept of a
"significant foundational idea."
Sanction
–
in normative-legal documents and political
discourse, the term sanction denotes the validation of
a resolution or decree as legally binding and, in
international politics, refers to restrictions imposed by
one organization, society, or state on another.
Additionally, the Explanatory Dictionary of the Uzbek
Language provides four meanings for the term. In
English, the term sanction functions as a noun and is
defined with five semantic meanings. The word
originates from the Latin verb sancire (to confirm),
which evolved into the noun sanctio [Merriam-
Webster,
2024].
Initially,
it
denoted
the
implementation of laws and their enforcement. Over
time, the term acquired additional meanings, including
political and economic applications. In Uzbek official
documents, sanction is predominantly used in the sense
of “the part of a legal norm or statute that specifies the
consequences of its violation.” For example, in the text
of the Resolution of the Central Bank of the Republic of
Uzbekistan dated January 23, 2024 (CBRU-
3492): “...to
determine the procedures and sanctions applicable to
the supervisory board and management, as well as key
personnel of the bank” [CBRU, 2024]. No other
meanings were observed. In English official documents,
the term is used in the context of economic penalties
imposed on individuals, organizations, or states. For
example, in the U.S. President’s memorandum dated
November 28, 2022:
“It is the policy of the United States to fully exercise
existing authorities to impose economic sanctions and
implement visa restrictions in order to promote justice
and accountability for acts of CRSV” [USPD, 2022].
Strategy
–
1) The art of warfare; 2) Guidelines or science
related to military tactics; 3) Systematic planning and
management in political activities. The term strategy
originates from
the Greek word στρατηγία (strategia),
initially denoting the management of an army or
territory. Over time, the term expanded to refer to
systematic planning in political governance. In Uzbek
decrees and legal documents, the term is exclusively
used in its third sense. For instance, in the Presidential
Decree of Uzbekistan dated January 31, 2024 (PD-49):
“... in accordance with PD
-300, on the measures for the
timely and qualitative implementation of the
‘Uzbekistan –
2030 Strategy’ in 2023” [PDRU, 2024] –
the term reflects systematic plans devised for national
governance.
In English, the adjective strategic and the noun strategy
preserve similar meanings. For example, in the U.S.
President’s memorandum dated December 18, 2018: “I
assign to United States Space Command: (1) all the
general responsibilities of a Unified Combatant
Command; (2) the space-related responsibilities
previously assigned to the Commander, United States
Strategic Command;” [USPM, 2018]. Here, strategic
conveys the first sense of the term. Both languages
retain the Greek borrowing in its noun and adjective
forms, preserving its polysemic nature.
Demographic
–
a term referring to the statistical
indicators of population size and ethnic characteristics.
It is derived from the Greek word “δημογραφικός”
(dēmos –
people, graphia
–
writing). In Uzbek, it appears
in the forms demografiya and demografik, while in
English, it is found as demographic, demographically,
demography, and demographics. No polysemantic
characteristics of this word were found in either
language. In both English and Uzbek, the term is
primarily used to denote the statistical representation
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The American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations
of population size. For example, in one Uzbek official
document, the term is used as follows: “By March 1,
together with the Ministry of Preschool and School
Education, to establish new non-state general
secondary education institutions in the coming years,
taking into account demographic growth, population
distribution, and density” [PDRU, 2024].
Regime
–
this lexeme exists in both Uzbek and English,
where in both languages its core meaning refers to a
system of governance, often implying an authoritarian
rule. Over time, the meaning has shifted to also denote
an organized system or procedure for carrying out
activities or a way of living. An analysis of Uzbek texts
revealed an instance of semantic broadening for the
term rejim. For example, in the Decree of the President
of the Republic of Uzbekistan dated December 23,
2022 (PD-
452): “When placing precious metals and raw
materials containing precious metals under the
customs regime for processing within the customs
territory…” [PDRU, 2022]. The phrase “bojxona rejimi”
(customs regime) implies a system of activities in
accordance with procedures established by customs
authorities. However, the Explanatory Dictionary of
the Uzbek Language does not include a definition of
“rejim” relating to the organization or operational
procedures of institutions.
The term “rejim” originates from the Latin regimen (to
govern) and was adopted into French as régime. The
French-adapted pronunciation subsequently spread
into other languages [OED, 2024]. In English, the term
is spelled as regime, and its borrowing into Uzbek is
likely influenced by Russian usage.
CONCLUSION
The general conclusions derived from the semantic
characteristics of the borrowings identified in our
objects of study in Uzbek and English are as follows:
1.
Number of Borrowings:
English contains a significantly greater number of Latin
and Greek borrowings compared to Uzbek. For
instance, it is reported that contemporary English
includes approximately 25,000 Latin borrowings.
However, statistical data on the number of Latin and
Greek borrowings in Uzbek could not be found in the
available sources.
2.
Polysemy:
Due to English being an official language in multiple
countries worldwide, certain Latin and Greek
borrowings
(e.g.,
resident)
exhibit
polysemic
characteristics in English. In contrast, these borrowings
in Uzbek do not typically demonstrate polysemy.
3.
Semantic Differences:
The semantic applications of words like norms,
normative, regime, contingent differ significantly
between English and Uzbek.
4.
Influence of Time and Context:
Variations in the meanings of certain lexical units in the
two languages were observed, influenced by the
historical and spatial context of borrowing. For example,
many Latin and Greek words borrowed into English
during the Middle English period (via French) were
related to Christian religious terminology, contributing
to their polysemic nature. In contrast, Latin borrowings
in Uzbek predominantly entered the language in the late
19th and early 20th centuries through German, English,
and Russian. As a result, such borrowings in Uzbek
typically convey a single concept, with monosemy being
more common than polysemy.
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