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ASSESSMENT OF TECHNOGENIC IMPACTS ON SLOPE DEFORMATION IN
LARGE-SCALE COPPER MINING: A CASE STUDY OF THE KALMAKIR OPEN-
PIT MINE
Ravshanov Z.Y.
Kadirkulov D.I.
Tashkent State Technical University named after Islam Karimov, Uzbekistan
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15760628
Abstract:
Anthropogenic (technogenic) factors such as blasting, excavation sequencing,
equipment-induced vibrations, and poorly designed drainage systems significantly influence
pit slope deformation in large-scale open-pit mining operations. This study presents a
detailed investigation of these influences at the Kalmakir copper mine in Uzbekistan. Using
field data, geotechnical instrumentation, and Finite Element Modeling (FEM) via PLAXIS 2D,
the stress redistribution and displacement patterns under various mining activities were
analyzed. The results indicate that uncontrolled blasting and excavation without proper
phasing contribute most to instability. Recommendations include optimized blast timing,
vibration monitoring, phased excavation, and reinforcement strategies.
Keywords:
technogenic factors, blasting, slope deformation, pit wall stability, FEM,
Kalmakir mine, mining-induced stress.
In modern open-pit mining, geotechnical hazards are not only governed by natural
conditions but increasingly by technogenic (human-induced) factors. In particular, activities
such as drilling and blasting, improper excavation scheduling, and heavy machinery
movement introduce significant dynamic and static loads to the pit walls. At Kalmakir mine —
one of the largest open-pit copper operations in Central Asia — several minor slope failures in
recent years have prompted investigations into operational practices contributing to
instability. This paper assesses the impact of these technogenic factors and models their
influence on slope stress and displacement.
Table-1 The following anthropogenic influences were considered in this study.
Factor
Description
Blasting
Uncontrolled timing, excessive charge per delay, and poor burden
control
Excavation
sequencing
Uneven removal of material leading to unbalanced stress
distribution
Equipment-
induced stress
Vibrations from haul trucks and drills causing microcracking in
weakened zones
Drainage
mismanagement
Water seepage due to blocked ditches or ineffective toe drains
Each factor contributes to localized or systemic weakening of the slope and can trigger
failures, especially when combined with natural destabilizers such as rainfall.
Field Observations from Kalmakir.
Field inspections and monitoring (2022–2024)
revealed several critical observations:
Blasting conducted on non-standard grids led to overbreak in benches B5–B7.
Seepage water from haul roads accumulated at the slope toe, causing toe erosion.
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Seismic monitoring during equipment operation showed surface vibrations exceeding 5
mm/s in certain areas.
Excavation in the southern flank was conducted without advance reinforcement,
resulting in 8–12 cm displacement over 2 months.
Table-2 Summary of Geotechnical Data
Parameter
Typical Range at Kalmakir
Bench height
12–15 m
Slope angle (overall)
52–55°
Rock mass rating
45–60
UCS (MPa)
30–70
Charge per hole
60–120 kg
Peak vibration (PPV)
2.5–6.5 mm/s
FEM Simulation Setup. Finite Element Modeling was conducted using PLAXIS 2D,
simulating a slope section with layered rock mass and a benching system. The model aimed to
represent typical stress and deformation conditions under: Controlled vs. uncontrolled
blasting, phased vs. non-phased excavation, presence vs. absence of water at the toe.
Table-3 Input Parameters Used
Material
Elastic Modulus (MPa) Cohesion (kPa) Friction Angle (°)
Weathered Granite
2000
25
30
Fresh Granite
6000
55
36
Fill/Debris
500
10
25
Boundary conditions assumed roller supports on vertical sides and a fixed base. A Mohr-
Coulomb constitutive model was used for rock masses.
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Discussion and Engineering Implications.
The modeling and field data clearly
demonstrate that technogenic impacts can be equally or more hazardous than natural factors
in certain conditions. Poor blasting increases the risk of overbreak and loosening of toe
material. Improper excavation can create uneven stress zones, accelerating progressive
failure. The presence of water at the slope toe multiplies these risks. Hence, a combined
approach of improved blasting control, real-time vibration monitoring, and strict water
management must be enforced in high-sensitivity areas.
Technogenic factors play a critical role in slope deformation processes at open-pit mines
like Kalmakir. Blasting and excavation without proper control significantly increase the
likelihood of localized failures, especially when combined with secondary factors such as
water infiltration. Finite Element Modeling proved to be an effective tool in simulating the
impact of various operational scenarios. Implementation of optimized blasting, phased
excavation, and robust drainage infrastructure is essential for maintaining long-term slope
stability and mine safety.
References:
Используемая литература:
Foydalanilgan adabiyotlar:
1.
Hoek, E. & Bray, J.W. (1981).
Rock Slope Engineering
. IMM.
Scena
rio
A:
Co
ntr
o
lled B
la
st
ing
+
P
ha
sed
E
x
ca
v
a
tio
n
Maximum horizontal
displacement:
5.6 mm
Stress redistribution remained
localized
No failure zones identified
Factor of Safety (FoS):
1.35
Scena
rio
B
:
Unco
ntr
o
lled
B
la
st
ing
+
I
rr
eg
ula
r
Sequ
encing
Maximum horizontal
displacement:
16.2 mm
Stress arching observed across
bench faces
Shear strain concentrated at
slope toes
FoS dropped to
0.98
Scenario C: Same as B
+ Water Accumulation
Displacement
increased to 24.5 mm
Pore pressure
contributed to base
weakening
Predicted local failure
near B6 bench
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