Acumen:
International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research
Volume 1, Issue 4
359
Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
Primitive Religious Beliefs in Sogdiana in the Ancient and Early Medieval
Periods
Bozorov Javlon Ochil ugli
Student of Master’s Degree at
the Department of Archaeology,
Samarkand State University
+998 93 153 36 65
Abstract
This article provides information about the ancient religions in the Sogdian region
during the Ancient and Early Medieval periods, their emergence, spread, and influence
on culture.
Keywords:
Samarkand, Kesh-Nakhshab, Bukhara, animistic views, animism,
Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, A. Belenisky, fetishism, totemism, Christianity,
shamanism
.
Аннотация:
В данной статье представлены сведения о древних религиях
Согдийской области в древности и раннем средневековье, их возникновении,
распространении и влиянии на культуру.
Ключевые слова:
Самарканд, Кеш-Нахла, Бухара, анимистические воззрения,
анимизм, зороастризм и монизм, А. Беленисский, фетишизм, тотемизм,
христианство, шаманизм.
In the early medieval period, a number of cities began to develop as administrative
and socio-political centers of various regional associations in Sogdiana. Most of them
became the centers of internal confederative structures within the historical and
administrative divisions of Sogd, such as Samarkand, Kesh-Nakhshab, and Bukhara.
In the early stages of the emergence of cities, in addition to socio-economic factors,
military-strategic, natural-geographical, and religious factors also played a significant
role. As religious and ideological views developed, the construction of religious
buildings in the city centers and the transformation of these cities into religious centers
became a key factor in their growth.
T. Shirinov, based on the analysis of numerous archaeological materials, concludes
that during the Bronze Age, the first cities of Central Asia served as centers of agriculture,
handicrafts, administration, and religion in the oasis regions.
Animistic beliefs in Sogdiana
.
The first religious belief practiced by our primitive
ancestors was animism. After early humans realized that the dead could not return to life,
they came to the belief that "the soul is always alive" and lives on in the afterlife. They
believed that the spirits of deceased tribal leaders, brave warriors, and fathers would
protect the living from various misfortunes and calamities. As a result, they worshiped
these spirits and held religious rituals in their honor, hoping to gain their protection.
Acumen:
International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research
Volume 1, Issue 4
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Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
This religious belief, known as ancestor worship, was widespread in ancient
Sogdiana, as noted in scientific literature.
1
Animistic Beliefs and Funeral Practices in Sogdiana. A unique artifact preserved in
the Samarkand Museum vividly illustrates these beliefs. It depicts priests near an altar
where a fire is burning, and angels are shown flying above the altar. This suggests that
after death, the soul begins its journey at the threshold of a fiery altar, which represents
the starting point of its journey in the afterlife. It is here that sacrifices are made.
According to the religious doctrines of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, the
deceased first ascend and transform into radiant, soul-like entities called fravashis.
However, they do not sever their connection with the living world. During the period of
Navruz (the first day of the new year), which lasts ten days, rituals to honor the souls of
the dead are performed. The fravashis, or spirits of the deceased, visit the homes of the
living to receive their prayers and blessings. If the living remember the deceased, the
fravashis are peaceful and bless them in return. For this reason, Zoroastrians recite
prayers every day in honor of their ancestors in order to fulfill their wishes.
Among the Saka-Massaget tribes of Central Asia, it was believed that humans
possessed two spirits: one would leave the div immediately upon death, while the other
would stay with the div for a period of time, maintaining communication with the
living.
The famous historian Al-Biruni confirms, based on evidence, that during the funeral
rituals in Khwarezm and Sogdiana, the relatives of the deceased would wail and tear their
faces, which was a common practice. In the wall painting at the Tuproqqala complex in
Khwarezm (6th century BCE), a woman with disheveled hair and a torn face is depicted.
In our view, this is one of the earliest and most poignant depictions of the mourning ritual
in Central Asian visual art, reflecting the mourner's inner emotional state.
This idea is further confirmed by the figurines of hired mourners found at Afrosiyob.
Some pieces of land were even bought for these mourning rituals. For example, in a
document found in the Mug’ Mountain, it is written that a piece of land was purchased
specifically for the purpose of conducting funeral rituals for the deceased. The document
notes, "This land will be used for the burial ceremony."
2
This passage sheds light on the spiritual beliefs and complex funeral practices in
ancient Sogdiana, where the connection between the living and the dead was maintained
through various rituals, including prayers, sacrifices, and expressions of grief. These
practices reveal the deep animistic and religious sentiments that played a central role in
Sogdian society.
The Influence of Islam on Funeral and Mourning Practices in Central Asia. With the
introduction of Islam in the region, the role of hired mourners began to shift. They were
replaced by qalandars and dervishes, who played a significant role in mourning rituals.
These mystic religious figures, known for their spiritual practices, performed
1
Авесто. Асқар Маҳкам таржимаси.Тошкент. Шарқ. 2001. – Б. 91.
2
Лившиц В. А. Юридические документы и письма // Согдийские документы с горы Муг. . № II. 1962.-С.48
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International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research
Volume 1, Issue 4
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Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
ceremonial dances and prayers, such as the zikr (remembrance of God) near the
graves of respected individuals. Women from the deceased's family would perform the
sadr, a traditional form of ritual mourning dance.
3
The arrival of Islam in the Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) region led to the synthesis
of certain ancient customs with Islamic practices. As a result, some of these ancient
traditions were Islamized, blending pre-Islamic customs with new religious beliefs. This
process of synthesis became a distinctive feature of the peoples of Central Asia and did
not extend to other Muslim-majority countries.
For example, practices such as commemorating the deceased on the 20th and 40th
days after death, as well as preparing food for the deceased’s family on the anniversary
of their death, continue to be observed to this day in Central Asia. The recitation of
Qur'anic verses for the deceased is also a longstanding tradition.
Even with the arrival of world religions like Christianity and Islam, the symbolism
of angels and fravashis (spirits of the deceased) did not entirely disappear. This can still
be observed in the artistic traditions of the region. For instance, Christian churches are
often decorated with images of winged angels, a direct link to earlier representations of
divine beings in local religious traditions, such as the fravashis of Zoroastrian belief.
Thus, the introduction of Islam did not completely erase the old practices, but
instead, many of them were adapted and incorporated into the new religious and cultural
framework, resulting in a unique blend of traditions that still shape the funeral and
mourning customs in Central Asia today. With the arrival of Islam, angels-spirits
transformed into celestial beings. A miniature created in Uzbekistan, preserved in the
Kyiv Museum, depicts the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) on the night of the Mi'raj
(Ascension). In the scene, he is riding the Buraq, a heavenly steed, and ascending to the
heavens with eight-winged angels carrying flaming vessels and torches.
4
In Sogdian religious beliefs, the concepts of "jinn" and "angels" are also present.
According to the Iranian scholar B. Sarkarati, in all Zoroastrian texts, the Avestan and
Middle Persian terms rarika refer to images of women created by Ahriman, symbolizing
evil. These terms are associated with devils, including the dev and the dev-woman
(Jahika). However, with the arrival of Zoroastrianism, these beliefs were rejected, and
Ahriman's evil creatures were declared to be wicked animals.
In the primitive period when our ancestors lived, there was no single unifying
religion for all tribes, and various religious beliefs were practiced. One such belief was
totemism. Tribes selected certain animals and plants as totems. It is known that totemism
persisted in the consciousness of people for many centuries, and later, some of its
elements were absorbed into Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
5
3
Сухарева О. А. Пережитки демонологии и шаманства у равнинных таджиков // Домусульманские верования и
обряды в Средней Азии. № 2.1975. - С. 58.
4
Крачковская В. А. Мусульманское искусство в собрании Ханенко. Т. II // ЗКВ.Москва. 1938 .- С. 37.
5
Бертельс А. Е. Пери // Культура и искусство народов Средней Азии в древности и средние века. —
Москва.1979. - С. 119.
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International Journal of
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Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
Among the Massaget tribes of Central Asia, the birth of a child was understood as
the entry of the totem spirit into the woman's div, and death was seen as the
transformation of a person into a totem animal—essentially a return to their origin.
6
A medallion depicting a legendary animal with large ears and a long tail was found
at Varakhsha, the summer residence of the rulers of Bukhara (Bukhoro Khudot). It is
assumed that this is a griffin with the div of a lion and the head of an eagle, a mythical
winged creature.
According to G. Pugachenkova, the image of the griffin spread from Bactria and
Sogdiana among the Sak and Scythian nomadic tribes in the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, and
later extended to the Jeti-Su (Seven Rivers) and Altai regions. Based on this, the "wild
animal style" of applied art developed in Southern Siberia and Kazakhstan.
In one of the wall paintings at the Panjikent temple, a goddess-queen is depicted in
the form of a lioness, sitting on a throne and honoring the hero Rustam.
In Eastern mythology and poetry, the camel was one of the divine totems of the
ruling powers in the Central Asian region. At Afrosiyob (6th-8th centuries CE), clay
plaques depict a ruler sitting on a throne in the form of a camel, and deities riding camels.
A winged camel-griffin depicted on a metal vessel found in Samarkand (10th
century) testifies to the synthesis of two totemic symbols of ancient Sogdiana. Wall
paintings at Afrosiyob also depict Sogdian deities, one of whom is clearly holding a
vessel resembling a camel figurine. In the wall paintings of ancient Panjikent, a male
figure in the form of a camel is shown sitting on a throne, while a female figure next to
him is depicted as the symbol of the luck deity Farn, in the form of a ram. On her platter,
camel figurines—symbols of divine authority—are placed.
7
In Central Asia, palace and temple walls were not simply decorated with images of
birds and animals, but they also expressed specific mythical or religious-philosophical
meanings. Moreover, the depictions of animals were believed to have magical powers,
and it was believed that they protected people from evil forces.
Fetishism. One of the religious forms that existed in ancient Sogdiana was fetishism.
People believed that certain objects, such as a specific stone, tree, or part of an animal's
div, possessed extraordinary divine powers. Members of a tribe who identified with
these objects worshipped them. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant considered the
human tendency to view both material and immaterial things with the heart, as we do, to
be pure fetishism. Some remnants of this religious belief can still be seen in secular
religions. Primitive humans believed that they could influence certain objects or events,
and therefore, they would ask for help from these objects to fulfill their desires.
According to some researchers, this belief laid the foundation for idol worship.
The Tangshu, a Chinese chronicle, mentions that in ancient Uzbekistan, people
worshipped the spirit of De-si, and a temple was built in its honor. A golden vessel at the
t
6
Рапопорт Ю. А. Из истории религии Древнего Хорезма // ТХАЭЭ. . Т. VI. 1971. - С. 26.
7
Беленицкий А. М., Маршак Б. И. Черты мировоззрения согдийцев VH-VIII вв. в искусстве Пенджикента // Историяи
культура народов Средней Азии. Москва. 1976. -С. 81.
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Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
emple reads that it was a gift from the "Son of Heaven" to the Xan dynasty. It is likely
that this refers to the temple near Romitan, near Bukhara. According to the historian
Narshakhi, valuable items were brought to this temple by a Chinese princess who married
one of the rulers of Bukhara. The Beyshi chronicle (6th century) further elaborates: "This
region is governed by the spirit of De-si, to whom all the peoples living east of the
Western Sea offer worship. In the temple in Samarkand, a golden idol was dedicated to
the spirit of De-si, with a thickness of 5 meters and a corresponding height. Every day,
five camels, ten horses, and one hundred sheep are brought as offerings in honor of this
spirit."
When the Arabs captured the ancient city of Poykent, they burned many wooden
idols, removed decorations and patterns, and destroyed wall paintings, seeing them as
symbols of idolatry.
8
Sources indicate that in Samarkand, there were temples for both Zoroastrianism and
idol worship.
9
The sources also note instances where earlier religious buildings were
repurposed for Islamic worship. According to Chinese chronicles, the Jama Masjid in
Bukhara was built on the site of an old idol temple.
As reported by Tabari, even after the establishment of Islam in Sogdiana, idol
worship continued. The Arab commander Haydar ibn Kavus al-Afshin made an
agreement with the rulers of Sogd to allow each tribe to practice its own religion. As a
result, this commander was accused of being involved in a rebellion against Islam.
The ram (Oven, sheep) was one of the ancient totems, and it was also considered a
symbol of the Tumor and the success of the deity Farn. In the wall paintings at Afrosiyob,
rulers of Samarkand (7th century) are depicted at a feast with winged rams and serpents
above them, symbolizing the king's fortune and divine favor.
10
.
In one of the Biyanayman temples in Samarkand, a deity is depicted holding a sword
in the left hand and a fiery fire altar in the right hand.
11
Based on certain characteristics,
this is believed to be the depiction of the deity Farn.
Farn/Xvarna – Arkhār – is recognized as a symbol of ruling dynasties. Chinese
sources indicate that the thrones of some Central Asian rulers were adorned with the ram
as a symbol of prosperity and flourishing. In Firdawsi's "Shahnameh," it is written that
Kaykavus gifted Rustam a throne in the shape of a ram.
In the wall paintings at Afrosiyob, when the Samarkand king is receiving foreign
ambassadors, he is depicted wearing a robe decorated with images of rams. The rams’
necks are adorned with bells, a motif that also appears in the wall paintings of Varakhsha
and Bolaliktepa. These bells can be considered talismanic objects, as people believed
that their sound could drive away evil spirits. The depictions in the Bolaliktepa wall
paintings seem to be associated with sorcery.
Fetishism marks the conclusion of the phase of primitive religious ideas and beliefs
in human history. Animism and totemism take on material forms and become more
8
Наршахий. Бухоро тарихи. А.Расулов таржимаси.Т., “Фан”.1966. -Б.56.
9
Якубов Ю. Я. Изображение богов на биянайманских оссуариях // Прошлое Средней Азии. 1987.- С. 168.
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Acumen: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
complex, which leads to the development of more intricate religious beliefs. This process
ultimately results in the emergence of belief in a Higher Power, and the recognition of
the oneness of the Creator of the universe. Consequently, religious belief reaches its
pinnacle.
Initially, in human consciousness, belief in the power of spirits and ancestors left its
mark. Later, the belief in their influence on social life became embodied in fetish objects.
This process led to the conclusion that if humanity wants to live peacefully and prosper,
it must worship supernatural forces and offer sacrifices to them. Without the patronage
of a Higher Power, people feel weak and defenseless..
List of Literature
1.
Авесто. Translation of Askar Mahkam.Тошкент. Шарқ. 2001.
2.
Беленицкий А. М. Вопросы идеологии и культов Согда // Живопись
древнего Пянджикента. Москва. 1954.
3.
Беленицкий А. М., Маршак Б. И. Черты мировоззрения согдийцев VH-VIII
вв. в искусстве Пенджикента // Историяи культура народов Средней Азии.
Москва. 1976.
4.
Бертельс А. Е. Пери // Культура и искусство народов Средней Азии в
древности и средние века. — Москва.1979.
5.
Крачковская В. А. Мусульманское искусство в собрании Ханенко. Т. II //
ЗКВ.Москва. 1938 .
6.
Лившиц В. А. Юридические документы и письма // Согдийские документы
с горы Муг. . № II. 1962.
7.
Литвинский Б. А. Кангюйско-сарматский фарн. Душанбе. 1968.
8.
Наршахий. Бухоро тарихи. А.Расулов таржимаси.Т., “Фан”.1966.
9.
Рапопорт Ю. А. Из истории религии Древнего Хорезма // ТХАЭЭ. . Т. VI.
1971.
10.
Сухарева О. А. Пережитки демонологии и шаманства у равнинных
таджиков // Домусульманские верования и обряды в Средней Азии. № 2.1975.
11.
Якубов Ю. Я. Изображение богов на биянайманских оссуариях //
Прошлое Средней Азии. 1987.
