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THE HISTORY OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN THE
BUKHARA EMIRATE (LATE 19TH – EARLY 20TH
CENTURY)
Dilshod Sharopov
Lecturer, Department of Archaeology and
History of Bukhara
Bukhara State University
Rajabov Oybek Iskandarovich
Lecturer, Department of Archaeology and
History of Bukhara Bukhara State University
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15649260
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Qabul qilindi: 01-June 2025 yil
Ma’qullandi: 07- June 2025 yil
Nashr qilindi: 12- June 2025 yil
This article analyzes the formation, objectives, and socio-
political significance of the exile (forced deportation)
system in the Bukhara Emirate during the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, based on historical sources. In the
Emirate, exile punishment was not limited to criminals
but was also applied to political opponents, as well as
individuals accused of religious or ethnic discord. The
article explores the role of the Emirate's administrative
structures in issuing exile decisions, the forms of
punishment, designated exile regions, and the impact of
this practice on local populations. Additionally, changes
in the exile system in the context of relations with the
Russian Empire are examined. The study is based on
archival documents, and written accounts of foreign
travelers and diplomatic representatives. Through this
topic, the article reveals the unique characteristics of the
Bukhara
Emirate’s
legal-political
system
and
mechanisms of social control
KEYWORDS
Bukhara Emirate, exile system,
political punishments, 19th
century, early 20th century,
social control, legal system of
the Emirate, historical sources.
Introduction.
Following Uzbekistan’s independence, new opportunities emerged to
reevaluate national history from a modern methodological perspective. This process
necessitated a critical reassessment of the negative socio-economic consequences caused by
the colonial-imperial systems of the Tsarist and Soviet periods. In this context, it became
essential to identify and analyze the underlying factors of these impacts and to interpret
historical realities based on a renewed national and scholarly outlook. Moreover, the need to
conduct comprehensive studies of past socio-political processes in light of contemporary
academic approaches and national interests has become one of the central tasks of current
historical research.
Results and Discussion.
According to the researcher N.F. Sitnyakovsky, who studied
the history of the irrigation system in the Bukhara Emirate, there were specific difficulties in
the construction and use of irrigation facilities during this period. Several major rivers flowed
through the territory of the Emirate, including the Amu Darya, Surkhan Darya, Kashka Darya,
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and Zeravshan. However, due to the geographical features of the region, the abundant waters
of the Amu Darya were rarely utilized for agricultural irrigation. In contrast, the population
sought to exploit every drop of water from the Zeravshan and Kashka Darya rivers. As in other
Eastern states, the irrigation system in the Bukhara Emirate was organized by the state.
During the period when the Emirate was under protectorate rule, the construction and
administration of irrigation infrastructure, as well as the distribution of water across
territories, became the responsibility of the colonial administration.
In accordance with the 1873 peace treaty, the territories stretching from the cities of
Khujand, Ura-Tyube, Panjikent, Samarkand, and Kattakurgan to Zirabulok, as well as the
regions of Shughnan, Wakhan, and Rushan in Eastern Bukhara –particularly the upper basin
of the Zeravshan River –were lost. This loss deprived the population of the Bukhara Emirate
of their main source of life: water. As a result, the Emirate became even more economically
dependent on the Russian Empire.
According to N.F. Sitnyakovsky, in 1899, 32 canals received water from the right bank of
the Zeravshan River, while 20 canals drew water from the left bank. Based on the data
provided by the researcher V.I. Masalsky, in 1892, there were 25 canals on the right bank and
18 on the left bank of the same river. Taking into account that nine new canals were
constructed between 1892 and 1899, it might appear that the irrigation system in the
Bukhara Emirate had steadily improved over those years. However, in reality, during this
period the population of the Bukhara Emirate continued to suffer from water shortages and a
general lack of access to sufficient irrigation.
The newly launched irrigation structures were primarily constructed along the
Zeravshan River in territories under Russian control, specifically within the Samarkand region
of the Turkestan Governorate. This development occurred because, under the terms of an
agreement concluded with the Emir of Bukhara, these lands had been transferred to colonial
administration. Although the total water flow of the Zeravshan River amounted to
approximately 803 million cubic sazhen (according to Yu.Kh.), only 230 million cubic sazhen
were allocated to Bukhara. Since the administration of water distribution along the Zeravshan
was handled by the colonial authorities of the Samarkand region, the Bukhara province did
not receive a sufficient share of irrigation water. According to the testimony of one colonial
official, in the early 1880s, water was not supplied for 15 to 20 days to irrigate the gardens
within the city of Bukhara, including those personally owned by Emir Muzaffar.
The issue of water scarcity in the Emirate of Bukhara was not unnoticed by
contemporaries. Mirzo Olim Mahdum Hoji, in his historical work
Tarikhi Turkiston
(
The
History of Turkestan
), provides the following remark, which is by no means incidental: “The
water supply of Bukhara is scarce; although water is brought from the Zeravshan River and
several canals have been dug, it still proves insufficient during most of the summer season.”
It is self-evident that such a situation persisted throughout all periods of colonial rule.
Numerous historical sources document the persistent problems of water distribution, water
shortages, and, in some years, the complete absence of water in the Emirate of Bukhara.
According to A.R. Muhammadjonov—a dedicated scholar and leading expert on the history of
Bukhara, who skillfully investigated the irrigation history of the Bukhara oasis—the amount
of water allocated from the Zeravshan River for the Samarkand and Bukhara oases was
considered to be equivalent to 42 “ravoq” (a traditional measurement unit). However, this
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amount was not fully delivered to the Bukhara region and failed to meet the irrigation needs
of the oasis. Moreover, the arbitrary actions of the emirate’s officials further exacerbated the
issue.
During his father’s reign, Emir Muzaffar of Bukhara served as the governor (vali) of
Karmana. In his efforts to develop Karmana and its surrounding areas, he redirected the flow
of the Zeravshan River toward the Qal’ai Bus region by initiating the construction of new
canals and irrigation ditches. While this intervention brought prosperity and administrative
improvement to Qal’ai Bus and its environs, it had adverse consequences for other regions. In
particular, the redirection of water led to acute shortages in the Qorakol area, resulting in the
desolation of many agricultural settlements and revered pilgrimage sites. Such circumstances
further deteriorated the conditions of agricultural oases. The royal irrigation specialist Z.
Zhizhemsky, who served in Samarkand during the 1870s, noted: “In the Qorakol, Shohrud, and
Vobkent oases, residents were forced to rely either on reused irrigation water or on
incidental, unpredictable water sources.”
In the Emirate of Bukhara, collective labor mobilizations (hashar) were periodically
organized to clean and repair existing infrastructure, including bridges, dams, canals, and
irrigation ditches. Those who failed to participate in such works were subject to a monetary
fine known as the
boqi payment
, which was officially designated for the state treasury.
However, in practice, these funds were frequently embezzled or misappropriated. Corruption
among administrative officials in this domain was notably widespread.
For instance, according to a report submitted to the emir by Inoyatullo Khoja, the head
of a district council, a sum of 2,000 tangas collected as
boqi payment
from residents of the
Qorakol district—who had not participated in maintenance work for the Khayrabod irrigation
canal—was never delivered to the state treasury. The funds were allegedly misappropriated
by Hamza Khoja, a relative of the local
amlokdor
(land administrator).
The proposals put forward by Ahmad Donish—a polymath and enlightened reformer of
his time—regarding the diversion of Amu Darya waters to Bukhara and the use of this water
to irrigate lands in the lower reaches of the Zarafshan River remained unfulfilled. Despite the
establishment of joint water distribution commissions between Bukhara and Samarkand in
1872, which included representatives from both regions, and the development of irrigation
projects such as the one proposed by Z. Zhizhemsky, the head of the Samarkand Irrigation
Department, these initiatives were consistently postponed. The main reasons cited were lack
of funding and various bureaucratic pretexts.
Conclusion.
Despite existing difficulties, the population of the Bukhara Emirate and its
diligent farmers demonstrated remarkable resilience and ingenuity in sustaining agricultural
production. By adhering to ancient farming traditions, they managed to cultivate essential
crops to meet their subsistence needs and contributed to the creation of flourishing orchards
and gardens. Their efforts exemplify a deep-rooted agricultural culture that persisted even
under challenging conditions.
References:
1.
Sitnyakovskiy, N. F. (1899). Zamechaniya o Bukharskoy chasti doliny Zarafshana [Notes on
the Bukhara part of the Zarafshan Valley] (Vol. 1, p. 135). St. Petersburg.
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2.
Masalskiy, V. I. (1892). Khlopkovoye delo v Sredney Azii (Turkestan, Zakasp. obl., Bukhara i
Khiva) i yego budushcheye [The Cotton Industry in Central Asia (Turkestan, Trans-Caspian
region, Bukhara and Khiva) and Its Future] (p. 145). St. Petersburg.
3.
National Archive of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (n.d.). Fund 1, Inventory 290, File 43.
Oʻzbekiston Respublikasi Markaziy Davlat Arxivi.
4.
Mirzo Olim Mahdum Khoja. (2008). Tarikhi Turkiston [History of Turkestan] (p. 191).
Tashkent.
5.
Mirzakulov, B. (2014). Qorako‘l tarikh silsilasida [In the Historical Series of Qorako‘l] (pp.
145–146). Tashkent: Chashma Print.
