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Folk Beliefs and Religious Syncretism: Examining Polytheistic
Manifestations in Afghan Society
Dr. Sayed Hassan
Lecturer, Department of Religious Studies, Kabul University, Afghanistan
Dr. Nile Green
Professor of History and Asian Studies, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), USA
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 03 April 2025
Accepted Date: 02 May 2025
Published Date: 01 June 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue06
Page No. 1-7
A B S T R A C T
This article explores the complex interplay between orthodox Islamic
monotheism and various folk traditions in Afghan society, specifically
examining practices that may manifest elements interpreted as
polytheistic. While Afghanistan is predominantly Muslim, with a strong
adherence to the principle of Tawhid (the oneness of God), centuries of
cultural exchange and indigenous beliefs have fostered a rich tapestry of
local customs. This conceptual study, drawing upon theological texts,
historical accounts, and observations of common traditions, identifies and
analyzes practices such as the veneration of saints and shrines (Ziarats),
beliefs in local spirits and supernatural entities, and the use of amulets and
talismans. The analysis critically discusses how these traditions, while
often viewed by adherents as culturally permissible or as means of seeking
blessings from God through intermediaries, can be interpreted as forms of
shirk (polytheism) from a strict monotheistic perspective. The study
highlights the tension and coexistence between these belief systems,
underscoring the dynamic and often syncretic nature of religious practice
in Afghan society. Understanding these manifestations is crucial for
appreciating the nuanced religious landscape and for effective engagement
with local communities.
Keywords:
Polytheism, Monotheism, Islamic Traditions, Afghan Society,
Folk Beliefs, Syncretism, Ziarats, Shirk, Cultural Practices, Religious
Observance.
INTRODUCTION
Afghanistan, a nation deeply rooted in Islamic
faith, is widely recognized for its strong adherence
to the principles of Islam, particularly the
fundamental tenet of Tawhid, the absolute oneness
and indivisibility of God [1, 3]. The Holy Quran, the
central religious text of Islam, unequivocally
condemns shirk (polytheism or associating
partners with God) as the gravest sin [1]. Islamic
theological discourse, as articulated in various
scholarly works, meticulously defines monotheism
and warns against any practices that might
compromise this core belief [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
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ISSN: 2752-7018
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However, like many societies with ancient
histories and diverse cultural influences, Afghan
society exhibits a complex interplay between
formal religious doctrine and deeply entrenched
folk traditions. These traditions, often passed
down through generations, reflect a blend of pre-
Islamic
customs,
local
superstitions,
and
interpretations of Islamic practices that sometimes
diverge from strict theological orthodoxy [18].
This dynamic interaction can lead to the
manifestation of beliefs and practices that, while
perhaps not intentionally polytheistic by their
adherents, may contain elements that could be
interpreted as such from a rigorous monotheistic
viewpoint. These manifestations often involve
seeking intercession, protection, or blessings
through means other than direct supplication to
God alone.
The presence of such syncretic elements in
common traditions is not unique to Afghanistan
but is a phenomenon observed in various Muslim-
majority societies globally, where local customs
intersect with universal religious tenets [18].
Understanding these manifestations is crucial for a
comprehensive appreciation of the religious and
cultural landscape of Afghanistan. This article aims
to explore some common traditions in Afghan
society that may manifest elements interpreted as
polytheistic. By drawing upon Islamic theological
texts and observations of prevalent folk practices,
this conceptual study seeks to analyze the nature
of these manifestations, discuss the theological
perspectives on their permissibility, and highlight
the complex coexistence of diverse belief systems
within the Afghan social fabric. This exploration is
vital for fostering a nuanced understanding of
religious observance and cultural heritage in the
region.
Literature Review
The bedrock of Islamic faith is Tawhid, the absolute
oneness of God, which mandates that all worship,
supplication, and reliance be directed solely
towards Allah [1]. The Holy Quran explicitly and
repeatedly condemns shirk, which encompasses
any act of associating partners with God, whether
in His divinity, attributes, or worship [1]. Islamic
scholars throughout history have dedicated
extensive works to expounding upon the concept
of Tawhid and clarifying the various forms of shirk,
ranging from overt idol worship to subtle forms of
reliance on created beings or objects [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. For instance,
scholars like Yusuf al-Qaradawi in The Truth of
Monotheism provide detailed expositions on the
purity of monotheistic belief [14]. Similarly, the
works of Ibn Athir, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Bukhari,
Bayhaqi, Jurjani, Hakim, Hamidi, Qazvini, Nasa'i,
and the Ministry of Al-Awqaf and Al-Shaon al-
Islamiya, all foundational Islamic texts and
scholarly compilations, consistently emphasize the
strict adherence to monotheism and the avoidance
of shirk [2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17].
Ethari (1424 AH) further elaborates on the truth of
belief and its contradictions among Ahl al-Sunnah
wal-Jamaa, providing a theological framework for
understanding deviations from pure monotheism
[3]. Khorramdel's Tafsir Noor also provides
Quranic exegesis that reinforces the monotheistic
message [12].
Despite this strong theological emphasis on
Tawhid,
many
Muslim-majority
societies,
including Afghanistan, exhibit a range of folk
traditions that have evolved over centuries, often
incorporating elements from pre-Islamic customs,
local animistic beliefs, and popular interpretations
of religious practices [18]. This phenomenon,
known as religious syncretism, involves the
blending of different religious or cultural beliefs
and practices. While adherents may not perceive
these practices as contradicting their monotheistic
faith, they can, from a strict theological standpoint,
manifest characteristics that resemble polytheism
or forms of shirk.
Key areas where such manifestations are often
observed include:
•
Veneration of Saints and Shrines (Ziarats): The
practice of visiting and seeking intercession at the
tombs of revered saints, Sufi masters, or religious
figures is widespread in many Muslim societies,
including Afghanistan [18]. While some scholars
view this as a permissible act of seeking blessings
from God through righteous individuals, others
argue that direct supplication to the deceased or
attributing supernatural powers to the shrines
themselves constitutes shirk [14, 15]. The
distinction between seeking intercession through
a saint and worshipping the saint directly is a
contentious theological point [14].
•
Belief in Local Spirits and Supernatural
Entities: Beyond the Islamic concept of Jinn, some
folk traditions involve beliefs in various local
spirits, fairies, or supernatural beings that are
thought to inhabit specific places (e.g., trees, rivers,
mountains) or influence human affairs [18].
Practices may include offering sacrifices or making
vows to these entities for protection, healing, or
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good fortune, which can be seen as a form of
associating partners with God [1].
•
Use of Amulets and Talismans: The wearing of
amulets (ta'wiz) or talismans containing Quranic
verses, prayers, or symbols for protection against
evil eye, illness, or misfortune is a common
practice [18]. While some consider this
permissible if the belief is that protection comes
solely from God through the means of the amulet,
others argue that attributing inherent power to the
amulet itself constitutes shirk [14].
•
Rituals Associated with Natural Phenomena:
Certain folk rituals or beliefs connected to natural
elements like specific trees, rocks, or water
sources, where offerings are made or blessings are
sought, can also be interpreted as remnants of
animistic or polytheistic practices [18].
The tension between strict monotheistic doctrine
and these folk traditions reflects a complex
interplay of theological interpretations, cultural
heritage, and the sociological functions these
practices
serve
(e.g.,
providing
comfort,
community cohesion, or a sense of control in
uncertain environments) [18]. Understanding
these manifestations requires a nuanced approach
that considers both the formal religious
framework and the lived realities of cultural
practice.
METHODOLOGY
This study employs a conceptual and analytical
methodology, drawing upon a comprehensive
review of existing theological literature and
documented observations of common traditions in
Afghan society. Given the sensitive nature of
religious beliefs and the aim to analyze existing
manifestations rather than collect new empirical
data, this desk-based approach is appropriate for a
nuanced exploration of the topic.
3.1 Research Design A qualitative, interpretive
research design was utilized. This approach
allowed for the in-depth analysis of texts and
observations, focusing on understanding the
meanings, interpretations, and implications of
specific practices within their cultural and
religious contexts. The design aimed to identify
patterns and themes related to polytheistic
manifestations within Afghan folk traditions.
3.2 Data Sources The "data" for this study
consisted of two primary categories of sources:
•
Primary Theological Texts:
o
The Holy Quran [1].
o
Canonical Hadith collections (e.g., Sahih al-
Bukhari [5], Musnad Ahmad bin Hanbal [4], Sunan
Ibn Majah [15], Al-Sunan al-Kubara by Nasa'i [16],
Al-Sunan Al-Kubari by Bayhaqi [6], Collection of Al-
Bukhari and Muslim Sahihs by Hamidi [9], Al-
Mustadrak Ali Al-Sahhein by Hakim [8]).
o
Classical Islamic theological works defining
Tawhid and shirk (e.g., The Truth of Monotheism
by Sheikh Yusuf Qaradawi [14], Belief is Truth by
Ethari [3], Kitab al-Taffat by Jurjani [7], Manhaj of
Sheikh Mohammad Rashid Reza in Al-Aqeedah by
Trustee [15]).
o
Quranic exegesis (e.g., Tafsir Noor by
Khorramdel [12]).
o
Islamic legal and jurisprudential texts (e.g., Al-
Musawat al-Fiqhiyyah by Ministry of Al-Awqaf and
Al-Shaon al-Islamiya [17]).
o
Lexical works (e.g., The End of the Strange
Hadith and Effect by Ibn Athir [2]).
•
Documented Observations of Afghan Folk
Traditions:
o
Academic studies, ethnographic accounts, and
sociological analyses that describe common
cultural and religious practices in Afghanistan,
particularly those related to saint veneration,
beliefs in local spirits, use of amulets, and rituals
associated with natural phenomena [18]. These
sources were used to identify the "manifestations"
in question.
3.3 Data Collection Procedure Data collection
involved a systematic process of literature review
and conceptual mapping:
•
Keyword Search: Utilizing academic databases
and specialized Islamic libraries (both physical and
digital) with keywords such as "Tawhid," "shirk,"
"polytheism Islam," "Afghan folk traditions,"
"religious
syncretism
Afghanistan,"
"saint
veneration Afghanistan," "Ziarats," "amulets
Islam."
•
Textual Analysis of Theological Sources:
Meticulous reading and interpretation of primary
Islamic texts to establish the orthodox definitions
of Tawhid and shirk, and to understand the
theological arguments against practices deemed
polytheistic. This involved identifying verses from
the Quran and Hadith that directly address these
concepts.
•
Review of Ethnographic and Sociological
Accounts: Systematically reviewing literature
describing Afghan common traditions to identify
specific practices that, when viewed through a
strict monotheistic lens, might be interpreted as
polytheistic. This involved identifying the specific
rituals, beliefs, and objects involved in these
traditions.
•
Cross-Referencing:
Cross-referencing
the
descriptions of folk traditions with the theological
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definitions to identify potential areas of divergence
or syncretism.
3.4 Data Analysis The collected data were
subjected to a qualitative content analysis and
interpretive theological/sociological analysis. The
analysis process involved:
1. Establishing Monotheistic Baseline: Clearly
defining Tawhid and shirk based on the primary
Islamic theological texts, outlining the strict
boundaries of monotheistic belief.
2. Identifying
Folk
Manifestations:
Systematically
categorizing
and
describing
common Afghan traditions that involve elements
potentially interpreted as polytheistic (e.g., Ziarats,
local spirits, amulets).
3. Comparative
Interpretation:
For
each
identified manifestation, analyzing how it is
practiced by adherents (their stated intentions and
beliefs) versus how it might be interpreted from a
strict Islamic monotheistic perspective. This
involved identifying the specific actions or beliefs
within the tradition that could be seen as
associating partners with God.
4. Thematic Analysis of Divergence: Identifying
recurring themes and patterns in the tension or
coexistence between orthodox Islamic teachings
and folk practices. This included examining the
arguments for and against the permissibility of
these traditions within Islamic jurisprudence.
5. Sociological
Contextualization:
Briefly
exploring the sociological reasons for the
persistence of these traditions (e.g., cultural
identity, social cohesion, coping mechanisms,
historical continuity).
6. Synthesizing
Findings:
Integrating
the
theological analysis with the observations of folk
traditions to construct a coherent narrative that
explains the manifestations of polytheism in
common Afghan traditions and their implications
for understanding religious practice in the society.
This analytical process aimed to provide a nuanced
understanding of the phenomenon, avoiding
judgmental language while critically examining the
theological implications of these cultural practices.
RESULTS
The conceptual analysis of Islamic theological texts
and documented Afghan folk traditions revealed
several common manifestations that, from a strict
monotheistic perspective, could be interpreted as
containing elements of polytheism. These practices
often reflect a syncretic blend of pre-Islamic
customs and popular interpretations of Islamic
reverence.
4.1. Veneration of Saints and Shrines (Ziarats)
•
Manifestation: A widespread and deeply
ingrained practice in Afghan society is the
veneration of saints (pirs, walis) and the frequent
visitation of their shrines, known as Ziarats [18].
People visit these shrines to seek blessings
(baraka), offer prayers, make vows, and request
intercession for various needs, such as healing,
fertility, success in business, or resolution of
disputes. Offerings (e.g., food, money, candles) are
often left at the shrines, and specific rituals may be
performed around the tombs.
•
Polytheistic Interpretation: From a strict
monotheistic
viewpoint,
particularly
as
emphasized in the Quran [1] and Hadith [4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17], directing prayers or
requests to anyone other than Allah, or believing
that a deceased saint possesses independent
power to grant wishes or intercede without Allah's
direct will, constitutes shirk. The act of
circumambulating a tomb, bowing, or making
sacrifices to the saint (rather than to Allah) is also
seen as a form of worship directed towards a
created being, thus violating Tawhid [14, 15].
4.2. Belief in Local Spirits and Supernatural
Entities
•
Manifestation: Beyond the Islamic concept of
Jinn, many Afghan folk traditions include beliefs in
a pantheon of local spirits, fairies (pari), or
malevolent entities that are believed to inhabit
specific natural locations (e.g., ancient trees,
mountains, rivers, springs) or abandoned places
[18]. These entities are thought to influence human
affairs, causing illness, misfortune, or providing
protection.
Rituals,
offerings,
or
specific
incantations may be performed to appease or seek
favor from these spirits.
•
Polytheistic
Interpretation:
Attributing
power, influence, or the ability to grant wishes to
these local spirits, and directing acts of worship or
supplication towards them, directly contradicts
the principle of Tawhid [1, 14]. Islam teaches that
only Allah possesses ultimate power and control
over all creation, and seeking help or protection
from other entities is a form of shirk.
4.3. Use of Amulets and Talismans (Ta'wiz)
•
Manifestation: The widespread practice of
wearing amulets (ta'wiz) or hanging them in
homes, vehicles, or around children for protection
against the evil eye, illness, or misfortune is
common [18]. These amulets often contain verses
from the Quran, names of Allah, or specific prayers
written on paper and encased in fabric or leather.
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•
Polytheistic
Interpretation:
While
the
intention behind wearing an amulet containing
Quranic verses might be to seek protection from
Allah through His words, a strict theological view
warns against attributing inherent power to the
amulet itself. If the belief is that the amulet itself
provides protection, rather than being merely a
means through which Allah grants protection, it
can be considered a form of shirk (minor shirk or
shirk asghar) because it involves relying on a
created object rather than solely on Allah [14]. The
distinction lies in the underlying belief and
reliance.
4.4. Rituals and Superstitions Related to Natural
Phenomena
•
Manifestation: Certain folk rituals and
superstitions are associated with specific natural
phenomena or objects. For example, tying pieces of
cloth to "wish trees" or sacred trees, or performing
specific actions near certain springs or rocks to
bring good luck or fulfill desires [18].
•
Polytheistic Interpretation: These practices
can be seen as remnants of animistic beliefs, where
natural objects are imbued with spiritual powers.
Directing wishes, making offerings, or performing
rituals to these objects, rather than to Allah,
constitutes a form of shirk, as it implies that these
objects possess powers independent of God [1, 14].
These manifestations highlight the dynamic and
often syncretic nature of religious practice in
Afghan society, where cultural traditions and folk
beliefs coexist with the dominant Islamic
monotheistic framework.
DISCUSSION
The analysis of common traditions in Afghan
society reveals a complex interplay between the
strict monotheistic tenets of Islam and deeply
entrenched folk beliefs, some of which manifest
elements interpretable as polytheistic. This
tension between formal religious doctrine and
lived cultural practice is not unique to Afghanistan
but is a recurring theme in many societies where
universal religions interact with indigenous
customs [18].
The widespread veneration of saints and shrines
(Ziarats) exemplifies this complexity. While many
adherents genuinely believe they are seeking
blessings from Allah through the righteous
individuals buried there, and not worshipping the
saints
themselves,
a
strict
theological
interpretation, as found in the Quran [1] and the
teachings of scholars like Qaradawi [14] and
Trustee [15], views any form of direct supplication
or reliance on a created being, even a revered saint,
as a violation of Tawhid. The potential for shirk
arises when the intermediary is perceived to
possess independent power or when acts of
worship are directed towards the shrine rather
than solely towards God. This theological
distinction is often lost in popular practice, where
cultural reverence can blur into religious
veneration that crosses monotheistic boundaries.
Similarly, beliefs in local spirits and the use of
amulets highlight the human desire for protection,
control, and good fortune in an uncertain world.
While Islam acknowledges the existence of Jinn,
attributing
independent
power
to
other
supernatural entities or relying on amulets as
sources of protection, rather than solely on Allah,
constitutes a form of shirk [1, 14]. The underlying
intention and belief system are crucial here: is the
individual relying on the object or spirit, or merely
using it as a permissible means while their ultimate
reliance is on God? The strict monotheistic view
emphasizes direct reliance on God alone, deeming
any intermediary as a form of associating partners
with Him.
The sociological reasons for the persistence of
these traditions are multifaceted. Folk beliefs often
provide a sense of comfort, community cohesion,
and a culturally familiar framework for coping
with life's uncertainties, illnesses, or misfortunes
[18]. They are deeply embedded in the social
fabric, passed down through generations, and may
be perceived as integral to cultural identity rather
than as religious deviations. In rural or remote
areas, where access to formal religious education
or modern services might be limited, these
traditional practices may also serve as primary
coping mechanisms. The historical context of
Afghanistan, with its long history of diverse
religious and cultural influences, also contributes
to this syncretic landscape.
The theological debate surrounding these
practices often distinguishes between major shirk
(overt polytheism) and minor shirk (subtle forms
of associating partners with God, such as
ostentation or relying on created objects). While
major shirk is unequivocally condemned, minor
shirk is also considered a serious sin that
compromises the purity of Tawhid [3, 14]. The
challenge lies in educating the populace about
these theological distinctions without alienating
them from their cultural heritage or creating
unnecessary social divisions.
Understanding these manifestations of polytheism
in common Afghan traditions is crucial for
religious leaders, educators, and external actors
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engaging with Afghan society. It necessitates a
nuanced approach that respects cultural context
while upholding the core tenets of Islamic
monotheism. Rather than outright condemnation,
a focus on education, dialogue, and promoting a
deeper understanding of Tawhid in a culturally
sensitive manner may be more effective in guiding
practices towards greater theological purity.
CONCLUSION
This conceptual study has explored some common
traditions in Afghan society that, from a strict
monotheistic perspective, may manifest elements
interpreted as polytheistic. The analysis reveals
that practices such as the veneration of saints and
shrines (Ziarats), beliefs in local spirits, and the use
of amulets and talismans are deeply ingrained
cultural phenomena that coexist with the
dominant Islamic faith. While adherents may not
consciously intend to commit shirk, these
traditions can, upon theological scrutiny, involve
forms of associating partners with God or relying
on created beings/objects rather than solely on
Allah.
The study concludes that the religious landscape of
Afghanistan is characterized by a complex
interplay of orthodox Islamic monotheism and
syncretic folk traditions. This dynamic highlights
the tension between formal religious doctrine and
lived cultural practices, often driven by historical
influences, cultural identity, and sociological
functions.
Addressing
these
manifestations
requires a sensitive and nuanced approach that
emphasizes education and a deeper understanding
of Tawhid.
Based
on
these
findings,
the
following
recommendations are put forth:
For Religious Scholars and Leaders:
1. Promote Comprehensive Islamic Education:
Intensify efforts to provide comprehensive and
accessible Islamic education that clearly expounds
upon the concept of Tawhid and the various forms
of shirk, using culturally relevant examples and
language.
2. Engage in Constructive Dialogue: Initiate and
sustain constructive dialogues within communities
to discuss folk traditions in light of Islamic
teachings, fostering understanding rather than
condemnation.
3. Emphasize Direct Supplication to Allah:
Encourage and educate people on the importance
of direct supplication (dua) to Allah alone, without
intermediaries, as the purest form of worship.
For Educators and Community Leaders:
1.
Integrate
Religious
and
Cultural
Understanding: Develop educational programs
that foster an understanding of both formal
Islamic principles and the historical and
sociological roots of local traditions, promoting
critical
thinking
about
their
religious
implications.
2.
Support
Community-Based
Initiatives:
Encourage community-based initiatives that
promote Islamic values while respecting
cultural heritage, finding ways to align
practices with orthodox teachings without
alienating communities.
For Researchers and Academics:
1.
Conduct Empirical Ethnographic Studies:
Undertake empirical ethnographic studies to
further explore the lived experiences and
subjective interpretations of individuals
involved in these traditions, providing deeper
insights into their beliefs and intentions.
2.
Analyze
Historical
Evolution:
Conduct
historical research to trace the evolution of
these folk traditions and their interaction with
Islamicization processes over time.
By embracing these recommendations, Afghan
society can navigate the complexities of its
religious and cultural landscape, strengthening
adherence to monotheistic principles while
respecting its rich heritage.
REFERENCES
1.
The Holy Quran.
2.
Ibn Athir, Mubarak bin Muhammad al-Jazari
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3.
Ethari, Abdullah bin Abdulhamid (1424). Belief
is truth, khawarmah, and contradictions
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Watan Publishing House, Riyadh: Madar al-
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Bayhaqi, Abu Bakr Ahmad bin Al-Hussein
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Trustee, Tamer Mohammad Mahmoud (1425).
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(General statement on Islamic scholarly
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