International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
12
https://theusajournals.com/index.php/ijhps
VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue05 2025
PAGE NO.
12-16
10.37547/ijhps/Volume05Issue05-04
Ancient Chach/Shash In Written Sources
Khurshida Yusupova
Oriental University, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Received:
17 March 2025;
Accepted:
13 April 2025;
Published:
15 May 2025
Abstract:
This article examines historical information about the Tashkent oasis found in ancient and medieval
written sources. It evaluates the significance of information regarding ancient cities, fortresses, major villages,
communication systems, productive forces, and the mining industry for studying the history of the oasis.
Keywords:
Chach, Shash, Tashkent, Chatkal-Kurama, Chinese sources, Persian scripts, precious stones, turquoise,
Ma'dan ash-Shash, silver mines, Silk Road.
Introduction:
The earliest information on the historical
and cultural regions of Central Asia is found in the
sacred
Zoroastrian
text
Avesta,
Achaemenid
inscriptions, Greco-Roman sources, and ancient
Chinese records. As a political entity, the Chach region
is first recorded in ancient and early medieval written
sources. Geographically, it emerged in the territories
between Ferghana and Sogdiana, on the right bank of
the middle course of the Syr Darya River. The earliest
references to Chach are found in Greco-Roman sources
from antiquity, in Chinese chronicles from antiquity
and the early medieval period, and in ancient Persian
and Turkic sources. With the advent of Islam, this div
of information was enriched by Arab geographers as
well as by Chinese and European diplomatic missions.
It is well known that ancient written sources contain
important information about the history and culture of
various historical and cultural regions of Central Asia.
Among this information, numerous records describe
ancient mines, minerals, and the regions where
precious stones were found. In inscriptions from the
Achaemenid kings' palace in Susa, there are references
to gold and other rare metals and precious stones
brought from Bactria, Sogdiana, and Khwarezm.
Specifically, these inscriptions tell us that gold was
imported from Bactria, lapis lazuli and "pine stone"
from Sogdiana, and a stone known as "akshaina" from
Khwarezm, all of which were used in palace
construction [23, pp. 11
–
12].
Nevertheless, ancient sources rarely mention the
history of the Chach oasis, where the mining industry
had long been well developed. By the mid-1st
millennium BCE, the importance of the region along the
middle course of the Syr Darya increased within the
communication and transportation networks. This is
also reflected in the emergence of cities that became
economic and cultural centers in the oasis. The
discovery of early fortification systems in areas near the
Tuyaboʻgʻiz Reservoir on the middle course of the
Ohangaron River and in the Zarkent region provides
evidence of the processes of urbanization in the oasis
[1].
The development of economic life in the Tashkent oasis
gradually increased the demand for various minerals. In
this process, the ancient extraction of rare stones and
various minerals from the Chatkal-Kurama Mountains
and the advancement of mining activities were of great
importance. Analyzing the data provided in the
sources, it is evident that these minerals were exported
both as raw materials and as finished or semi-finished
products to neighboring historical and cultural regions
of Central Asia.
It is well known that from the 5th century BCE, ancient
historical and geographical works by European authors
began to provide information about various historical
and cultural regions of Central Asia. Many of these
sources frequently mention territories rich in mineral
resources. For instance, Herodotus (5th century BCE)
wrote that the land of the Massagetae was abundant in
gold and copper, and that they did not use iron and
silver, as these metals were absent in their region [2].
International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
–
2771-2222)
However, no information is provided in his work about
the ancient Chach oasis or its mines. Similarly, in the
writings of Strabo (1st century BCE) [3], there are no
references to the Chach oasis, despite its richness in
useful minerals.
Only at the beginning of the Common Era did European
authors begin to mention the history of the Chach
oasis. Notably, these accounts increasingly referred to
the region’s rich and rare mineral resources.
Specifically, the Roman historian Pliny the Elder (1st
century CE) mentioned the presence of the precious
turquoise stone frequently found in the land of the
Saka, identified as the Tashkent oasis [4]. It is known
that turquoise was widely used in the making of jewelry
and decorative ornaments.
Ancient Chinese sources also hold significant
importance in illuminating the history and culture of
ancient Chach. The information they provide [5] stands
out in both scale and importance. Some of the earliest
references to the history of Chach are found in the
works of Sima Qian (145
–
86 BCE), particularly in his
Shiji (Historical Records), written at the end of the 2nd
century BCE, and in Ban Gu’s Qian Han Shu (Book of the
Former Han). The history of the great Han dynasty in
China (206 BCE
–
25 CE) includes records about both
Ferghana and the Tashkent oasis, particularly regarding
their metallic and non-metallic mineral wealth.
According to these records, gold and silver were
brought from China to Ferghana during this period, and
the people of Dawan (Ferghana) learned the technique
of extracting cast iron from the Chinese [6].
In the early medieval period, the amount of
information about the Chach oasis in ancient sources
continued to grow. Among them, Chinese records are
particularly valuable. Descriptions of Chach can also be
found in early medieval Chinese chronicles such as
Beishi, Suishu, and Tangshu.
During this period, the mineral wealth of the regions of
present-day Uzbekistan remained an area of interest
for Chinese travelers. Numerous records in Chinese
sources attest to this. For example, Xuanzang
’s travel
diary from his journey through Central Asia in 645, as
well as the History of the Northern Dynasties, mention
the gold, rubies, and lapis lazuli of Badakhshan, the
black salt of Khwarezm, and five types of salt obtained
from the lower reaches of the Zarafshan River. A source
from 751 CE also records information about mercury,
iron, and gold mines in Rakhon (Ferghana) [7].
During the period of the Turkic Khaganate, the
Tashkent oasis saw further development of its
international economic and cultural relations via the
Silk Road. At that time, the importance of the northern
branch of the Silk Road increased, leading to the
expansion of routes passing from Eastern Turkestan
through the Tianshan mountain passes into the
Semirechye (Jetisu) region, and the active assimilation
of these mountainous paths [8]. One branch of the
northern route extended from Zomin through Shash to
Isfijab, Taraz, Uchkuduk-Kulan (present-day Lugovaya
station), and through the Chu Valley to Aspara,
Novaket, and the city of Suyab (Ak-Beshim), eventually
reaching Upper Barskhan on the southeastern shore of
Lake Issyk-Kul [9].
The Xin Tangshu (New Book of Tang), compiled in the
first half of the 11th century, confirms that this
northern route
—
running from Anxi through the Bedel
Pass, Issyk-Kul (Zhehai), the valley of the Chu River
(Suiye), Balasagun, Suyab, and Aspara to Talas
—
was
extensively used during the early medieval period [10].
In the city of Suyab, merchants from various countries
resided [11]. Pottery similar to that of the Tashkent
oasis has been found in Suyab [12], indicating economic
and cultural ties that likely followed the route from
Chach through Taraz into the Chu Valley.
The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang traveled from
China through Central Asia to India in 630 CE. His
journey aimed to visit Buddhist sacred sites. The
account he left behind is considered one of the most
valuable sources on the state of Buddhism in Central
Asia and its historical geography during the 7th century
CE. Xuanzang traveled across Central Asia from
northeast to southwest, starting at the present-day
border area between China and Kyrgyzstan and
reaching the Oxus River (Amu Darya) in the Bactria-
Tocharistan region. He visited numerous historical-
geographical regions, cities, and villages, providing
concise yet meaningful descriptions. In his accounts, he
noted the names and scales of cities and regions and
recorded the presence of Buddhist structures and the
number of monks residing in them [13].
The information provided by Xuanzang only began to
be widely utilized by scholars after his work was
translated into European languages [14]. These
translations were supplemented with historical
commentary, in which the translators attempted to
identify Xuanzang’s route and localize the regions and
settlements
he
mentioned.
While
European
commentators, particularly the French and British,
worked at a time when the archaeological exploration
of Central Asia had just begun, by the early 21st century
a significant div of archaeological material had been
collected. Based on this, E. V. Rtveladze in his article
[15] sought to determine the trajectory and localization
of the places, cities, and villages described or visited by
Xuanzang. According to his account, Xuanzang traveled
approximately 1,000 li southeast from Zheshi (Chach)
to reach the country of Feihan (Ferghana).
International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
–
2771-2222)
There are two main routes from Chach to Ferghana:
one runs eastward along the Angren Valley and crosses
the Kamchik Pass in the Qurama Mountains; the other
proceeds southeast along the Syr Darya Valley to
Khujand and from there into Ferghana.
Two main routes connected Chach to Samarkand: the
southern route passed through Khavos and Zomin,
along the Molguzar mountain range and reached
Temur’s Gate before proceeding to Samarkand; the
northern route crossed the Syr Darya at Chinachket
(modern Chinoz), then passed through the Mirzachul
steppe to reach Jizzakh. These two roads eventually
converged. The northern route was more complex and
corresponds to Xuanzang’s description, as it crossed
the uninhabited and waterless steppe of Mirzachul.
During the medieval period, to supply travelers, trade
caravans, and pack animals with water, sardobas
(covered water cisterns) were constructed along this
route [16]. Xuanzang took the northern route to
Samarkand
, navigating by the “Great Mountain.” This
mountain is likely the Turkistan Range, as it is clearly
visible in open terrain. From Sudulisena, Xuanzang
traveled over 500 li along this road to reach the country
of Samo-tsan. There is no doubt that Samo-tsan refers
to Samarkand-Sogdiana.
From the Islamic period onward, the Chach oasis
—
one
of the ancient historical-cultural regions of Central
Asia
—
came to be frequently referred to as Shash in
numerous Arabic and Persian sources. The famous
11th-century scholar Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was the first
to mention the term Tashkent in his work Monuments
of the Past Generations [17]. In many medieval sources,
the
terms
Shash
and
Tashkent
are
used
interchangeably.
Medieval geographers and historians also provide
valuable information about the history and culture of
the Shash oasis. Such accounts can be found in the
works of Ibn Khurdadhbih [18], al-Tabari [19], Istakhri
[20], Ibn Hawqal [21], Biruni’s Mineralogy [22], the
anonymous Hudud al-
‘Alam (The Regions of the World)
[23], among others.
These sources offer critical insights into the historical
geography of Chach and Ilaq oases, including their
borders, major cities and villages, productive forces,
economic relations, copper, silver, gold, and other
mineral resources, as well as their internal and external
trade and communication networks.
Among the Arab travelers who visited Transoxiana,
special mention should be made of Abu’l Qasim
Muhammad ibn Hawqal, who departed from Baghdad
in 943 CE and traveled across all Muslim lands. His
information is especially valuable. In his work, he notes
details about the mines of Ilaq and states that a mint
operated there in the 9th century. The coins minted in
Ilaq held significant value in both domestic and foreign
trade. Like Ibn Khurdadhbih and other Arab
geographers, Ibn Hawqal emphasized that, apart from
Bukhara, Samarkand, and Ilaq, no other mints existed
in the region of Transoxiana during that time [24].
In the region’s southern territories, the Tashkent oasis
played a key role in fostering economic and cultural
relations with the cities of Semirechye (Jetisu) and
Eastern Turkestan. During the flourishing medieval
period, the Tashkent oasis was referred to by the
names Shash and Ilaq, with Ilaq corresponding to the
Angren River valley and Shash to the valley of the Parak
(Chirchiq) River [25]. As one of the most prosperous
economic centers of Transoxiana, the Tashkent oasis
—
particularly the region of Ilaq
—
was rich in valuable
mineral resources and, in the period under study, was
considered one of the principal centers for the
extraction of various metallic and non-metallic
minerals in Transoxiana [26].
Istakhri and Ibn Hawqal recorded that the Shash oasis
extended for two days’ travel in width and three days’
travel in length. They described its boundaries as
follows: to one side, it reached the Shash (Syr Darya)
River; to another, the Kelif Desert between Shash and
Isfijab, up to the Temir Darvoza (Iron Gate); on the third
side, it bordered the mountains of Ilaq; and on the
fourth side, it extended to the Christian village of
Winkerd. Both Istakhri and Ibn Hawqal emphasized
that in all of Khurasan and Transoxiana, they had not
seen a region as rich in mosques, large villages, and
buildings as the Shash oasis. They listed 27 cities in
Shash and 14 in Ilaq [27].
More detailed information on the political life of the
Chach region is found in slightly later sources from the
9th
–
10th centuries, particularly in the works of
historians such as al-Tabari, al-Baladhuri, and Nizam al-
Mulk. Al-Tabari, in particular, provides valuable
information on the political history of Chach, the
resistance of the people of Ustrushana against Arab
conquest, and the genealogy of the Afshins (local
rulers) of Chach.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, historical sources shed considerable light
on both the ancient and medieval history of Chach. The
Greco-Roman sources sometimes repeat similar
information and, at times, present conflicting accounts.
Chinese sources, mostly written by envoys and
travelers, tend to provide more detailed and accurate
descriptions. The works of Arab historians and
geographers focus mainly on the historical geography
of Chach, and stand out for their relatively clear and
thorough content.
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
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2771-2222)
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
–
2771-2222)
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