International Journal Of History And Political Sciences
1
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VOLUME
Vol.05 Issue05 2025
PAGE NO.
1-6
The Belt and Road Initiative in CLMV Nations: Political
Economy Dynamics and Sino-Regional Relations
Yusuf Sadiq
Department of Political Science, University of Lagos, Nigeria
Bamidele A. Ojo
Professor of Political Science at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Received:
03 March 2025;
Accepted:
02 April 2025;
Published:
01 May 2025
Abstract:
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a vast global infrastructure development strategy adopted by the
Chinese government. Within Southeast Asia, the CLMV countries
—
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam
—
are
key participants due to their strategic location and development needs. This article examines the political
economy aspects of BRI implementation in the CLMV region and analyzes their implications for the relationships
between these countries and China. Drawing on recent literature, it explores the motivations for CLMV
participation, the nature of BRI projects, the economic and political impacts, and the resulting dynamics in
bilateral relations. The analysis reveals that while BRI offers potential economic benefits through infrastructure
development, it also presents challenges related to debt sustainability, environmental concerns, social impacts,
and sovereignty. These factors significantly shape the political and economic interactions between CLMV nations
and China, leading to a complex interplay of cooperation, dependence, and occasional friction.
Keywords:
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), CLMV Nations, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sino-Regional
Relations, Political Economy, Economic Diplomacy, China's Foreign Policy, Infrastructure Development,
Geopolitical Strategy, Southeast Asia, Regional Connectivity, Trade Relations, Investment and Development,
Bilateral Relations, Asian Integration, Economic Cooperation, Sino-Cambodia Relations, Sino-Laos Relations, Sino-
Myanmar Relations, Sino-Vietnamese Relations, Sustainable Development, Global Governance, Multilateral
Engagement, China’s Global Influence, BRI Impact on Southe
ast Asia.
Introduction:
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI),
launched in 2013, represents China's ambitious
strategy to enhance global connectivity through
infrastructure development and investment (Clarke,
2017) [3]. It aims to promote policy coordination,
infrastructure connectivity, unimpeded trade, financial
integration, and people-to-people bonds among
participating countries (State Council Information
Office, PRC, 2024) [1]. The initiative has a significant
focus on Southeast Asia, with the CLMV countries
—
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam
—
being
central to both the land-based "Silk Road Economic
Belt" and the maritime "21st Century Maritime Silk
Road." These nations, characterized by developing
economies and substantial infrastructure gaps, are
seen by China as crucial partners in building regional
connectivity
and
fostering
economic
growth
(Maliszewska & Mensbrugghe, 2019) [2].
The engagement of CLMV countries with the BRI is
driven by a mix of economic aspirations, geopolitical
considerations, and domestic political factors.
However, BRI projects are not without controversy,
raising questions about their economic viability, social
and environmental consequences, and implications for
the sovereignty and strategic autonomy of host
nations. This article delves into the political economy
dimensions of BRI in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and
Vietnam, analyzing the motivations behind their
participation, the characteristics of the projects
undertaken, the economic and political impacts
observed, and how these dynamics influence their
respective relationships with China. By synthesizing
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
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recent research, we aim to provide a comprehensive
overview of the complex interplay between BRI
implementation and Sino-CLMV relations.
METHODS
This article is based on a narrative review and synthesis
of the provided literature concerning the Belt and Road
Initiative in the CLMV countries (Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, and Vietnam). The references include
academic articles, working papers, reports from
research institutes, and official government statements
published primarily between 2017 and 2024.
The review process involved examining each provided
source to identify key themes, arguments, data, and
case studies related to:
1.
The political and economic motivations for
CLMV countries' engagement with the BRI.
2.
The types and scale of BRI projects
implemented in each CLMV country.
3.
The reported economic impacts of BRI projects,
including investment, trade, growth, and debt.
4.
The political implications of BRI, such as
impacts on sovereignty, governance, and relations with
China.
5.
Specific country-level experiences of BRI
implementation in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and
Vietnam.
6.
Challenges and controversies associated with
BRI projects in the region.
Information extracted from these sources was then
synthesized and organized according to the IMRaD
format. The "Results" section presents the aggregated
findings from the literature, highlighting common
trends and country-specific nuances. The "Discussion"
section interprets these findings, analyzes the political
economy dynamics, and discusses the broader
implications for Sino-CLMV relations. Numerical
citations are used throughout the text to attribute
information to the corresponding references.
RESULTS
CLMV countries have generally shown enthusiasm for
the BRI, driven by the promise of much-needed
infrastructure development to boost economic growth
and connectivity (Kuik, 2021) [4, 7]. Cambodia and
Laos, in particular, have been described as enthusiastic
partners, with BRI projects continuing even amidst
global challenges like the COVID-19 pandemic
(Chheang, 2021) [5, 8]. Vietnam's approach has been
more cautious, characterized by hedging strategies
alongside engagement (Vu et al., 2021) [16].
Myanmar's situation is complex, influenced by internal
political dynamics, but the China-Myanmar Economic
Corridor (CMEC) remains a key component of the BRI,
with China determined to see it through (Myers, 2020)
[11]; (Banerjee, 2022) [12].
BRI projects in the CLMV region primarily focus on
transportation infrastructure, including railways,
highways, ports, and airports, as well as energy projects
like hydropower dams and power grids (Maliszewska &
Mensbrugghe, 2019) [2, 9]. For instance, the China-
Laos Railway is a flagship project in Laos (Kuik, 2021) [4,
7]; (Vörös & Pongkhao, 2020) [27], while Cambodia has
seen significant Chinese investment in ports and special
economic zones (Chheang & Pheakdey, 2019) [23];
(Menon, 2023) [26]; (Sok et al., 2023) [40]. In Myanmar,
CMEC aims to connect Yunnan province to the Indian
Ocean via infrastructure links (Transnational Institute,
2019) [10, 25, 34, 37, 41, 43, 46]. Vietnam's
engagement includes various infrastructure projects,
although some major initiatives have faced delays or
scrutiny (Hiep, 2019) [14, 20, 35, 39, 49].
Economically, BRI projects are intended to facilitate
trade and investment, potentially leading to economic
growth (Maliszewska & Mensbrugghe, 2019) [2, 9].
Cambodia has actively sought Chinese investment,
becoming a major recipient in the region (Open
Development Cambodia, 2023) [6]; (Sok et al., 2023)
[40]. Laos relies heavily on infrastructure development
to transition from landlocked to land-linked, with BRI
playing a central role (United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, 2020) [22]; (Vörös &
Pongkhao, 2020) [27]. However, concerns about debt
sustainability are prominent, particularly for countries
like Laos, where BRI-related borrowing contributes
significantly to public debt (Horn et al., 2019) [36, 38].
The economic benefits are not always evenly
distributed, and some projects have been criticized for
lacking transparency and potentially benefiting Chinese
companies more than local economies (Maliszewska &
Mensbrugghe, 2019) [2, 9]; (Transnational Institute,
2019) [10, 25, 34, 37, 41, 43, 46].
Politically, BRI engagement has deepened ties between
China and CLMV countries. China aims for higher
quality BRI cooperation for the modernization of all
countries (State Council Information Office, PRC, 2024)
[1] and views the initiative as a way to build a
community of shared future (State Council Information
Office, PRC, 2023) [18, 19]. For CLMV nations, closer
ties with China can offer political support and economic
opportunities. However, large-scale Chinese projects
have also raised concerns about sovereignty,
dependence, and potential political influence (Clarke,
2017) [3]; (Transnational Institute, 2019) [10, 25, 34,
37, 41, 43, 46]. Public and environmental opposition
has, in some cases, led to the suspension or
cancellation of controversial projects, such as the
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
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2771-2222)
Myitsone Dam in Myanmar (Reuters, 2011) [33] and
some projects in Cambodia (Shih, 2011) [31]. While
Cambodia and Laos have largely embraced China's
initiatives (Kuik, 2021) [4, 7]; (Chheang & Pheakdey,
2019) [23]; (Vörös & Pongkhao, 2020) [27], Vietnam has
adopted a more cautious and sometimes resistant
approach due to historical factors and maritime
disputes in the South China Sea (Vu et al., 2021) [16,
48]; (Ross, 2021) [17]; (Hiep, 2019) [14, 20, 35, 39, 49].
Myanmar's relationship with China and BRI is heavily
influenced by its internal political instability (Banerjee,
2022) [12]; (Paing, 2024) [13, 47].
Overall, the experience of CLMV countries with BRI is
mixed, characterized by both perceived benefits and
significant challenges. The initiative has undeniably
increased China's economic footprint and political
influence in the region (AidData, 2021) [21], but it has
also highlighted vulnerabilities and, in some instances,
fueled domestic concerns and complicated bilateral
relations.
DISCUSSION
The engagement of CLMV countries with China's Belt
and Road Initiative is a prime example of the complex
political economy dynamics at play in contemporary
international relations. The initial enthusiasm for BRI
among these nations was largely driven by the
compelling need for infrastructure to support
economic development and regional integration (Kuik,
2021) [4, 7]; (Chheang, 2021) [5, 8]. For countries like
Laos and Cambodia, with significant development gaps,
the promise of large-scale investment was particularly
attractive (United Nations Industrial Development
Organization, 2020) [22]; (Chheang & Pheakdey, 2019)
[23].
However, the implementation of BRI projects has
revealed significant challenges that have shaped the
political economy landscape and influenced relations
with China. The issue of debt sustainability is perhaps
the most prominent concern, with the potential for
heavy borrowing to lead to financial distress and
increased dependence on China (Horn et al., 2019) [36,
38]. This economic vulnerability can translate into
political leverage for China, potentially impacting the
policy choices and strategic autonomy of host
countries.
Furthermore, the social and environmental impacts of
large infrastructure projects, coupled with concerns
about transparency and governance, have generated
local opposition and scrutiny (Maliszewska &
Mensbrugghe, 2019) [2, 9]; (Transnational Institute,
2019) [10, 25, 34, 37, 41, 43, 46]. This highlights a key
political economy tension: the pursuit of national
development through foreign investment versus the
need to protect local interests, environmental
sustainability, and good governance. The suspension of
projects like the Myitsone Dam in Myanmar (Reuters,
2011) [33] and public pressure on projects in Cambodia
(Shih, 2011) [31] demonstrate that domestic factors
can significantly influence the trajectory of BRI.
The varied responses of CLMV countries to BRI also
reflect their unique geopolitical positions and historical
relationships with China. While Cambodia and Laos
have adopted a generally accommodating stance,
Vietnam's more cautious approach is shaped by
historical mistrust and ongoing maritime disputes (Vu
et al., 2021) [16, 48]; (Ross, 2021) [17]. Myanmar's
internal political turmoil adds another layer of
complexity to its BRI engagement (Banerjee, 2022)
[12]; (Paing, 2024) [13, 47]. These differences
underscore that the BRI's impact on Sino-CLMV
relations is not uniform but is mediated by individual
country contexts.
CONCLUSION
Looking ahead, the political economy dynamics of BRI
in the CLMV region will likely continue to evolve. China
is signaling a shift towards "higher quality" BRI
cooperation (State Council Information Office, PRC,
2024) [1] and emphasizing a "community of shared
future" (State Council Information Office, PRC, 2023)
[18, 19], potentially in response to criticisms and
challenges. However, the fundamental economic
disparities and power imbalances between China and
the CLMV nations will remain. The ability of CLMV
countries to effectively manage the economic and
political implications of BRI, ensure transparency and
sustainability in project implementation, and diversify
their economic partnerships will be crucial in shaping
their future relations with China and safeguarding their
national interests. The BRI is not merely an
infrastructure plan; it is a significant force reshaping the
political economy landscape of the CLMV region and
redefining its relationship with a rising global power.
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International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN
–
2771-2222)
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