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RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL POLICY: THE 1916 TURKESTAN UPRISING BASED
ON NEW RESEARCH
Abduqahorov Anvarjon Alijon ugli
Researcher at Navoi State University
E-mail:
F-ORCID ID: 0009-0004-4836-9867
Abstract:
This article approaches the 1916 popular movement in Turkestan from the perspective
of modern historiography, reanalyzing its regional, political, and social significance. The author
interprets this movement not merely as a spontaneous revolt, but as a historical expression of
public dissatisfaction with colonial policies and an important stage of national awakening. While
Soviet historiography viewed the event through the lens of class struggle, post-independence
scholarship reconsiders it as a national liberation movement. The article explains the roots of the
popular movement in factors such as social injustice, political oppression, and economic
exploitation. It also analyzes the consequences of the uprising, including demographic losses,
mass killings, deportations, displacement, and famine. Attention is given to some scholars'
application of the term “genocide.” The article emphasizes the need to reassess historical events
free from political and ideological influence, framing the movement as part of a broader effort to
restore historical memory and national identity. Thus, the 1916 uprising is presented as a
courageous struggle of the peoples of Turkestan in pursuit of freedom.
Keywords:
1916 uprising, popular movement, colonialism, national liberation struggle,
historical memory, genocide, Soviet historiography, demographic losses, political oppression,
historical interpretation, Central Asia, national awakening.
Introduction.
The 1916 popular movement in Turkestan stands as one of the most significant
historical events in the history of Central Asia, closely associated with complex social, political,
and cultural processes. This movement represented a major outburst of public discontent
accumulated in the social consciousness of the local population, openly expressing opposition to
the colonial policies carried out by the Russian Empire over many years. Although official
historical documents and contemporary sources often described the movement as a “rebellion,” a
“spontaneous uprising,” or “local disorder,” interpreting it merely as such is inadequate. In
reality, the movement was a clear expression of public protest against long-standing social
injustice, economic exploitation, national discrimination, and political oppression. The decree
issued by the Russian Empire in 1916, known as the “mobilization order” — which called for the
conscription of local male populations from Turkestan and other peripheral regions to serve in
labor battalions on the rear fronts of World War I — significantly intensified the already growing
discontent among the people. This decree was seen as a violation of the local communities’
social, cultural, and religious values, and was perceived as forcing them to sacrifice themselves
for the interests of the Russian Empire. Especially for peasants, herders, artisans, and other
working-class people who had lived independently on their lands for centuries, the decree
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represented not only economic but also moral oppression. In essence, the Turkestan popular
movement was driven not only by social or economic factors but also by deep national-liberation
aspirations. Participants included representatives of various social strata — peasants, artisans,
religious scholars, and even some members of the local intelligentsia. They fought for the honor
and freedom of their homeland, to preserve their identity, and to secure justice and liberty for
future generations. The movement spread across many regions of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, demonstrating that it was not a localized uprising limited to one
group or region, but rather a broad expression of collective dissatisfaction throughout the
Turkestan region. Throughout history, the approach to the Turkestan popular movement has
varied. During the Soviet era, it was interpreted within the framework of class struggle,
portrayed as a conflict between local exploiting classes and the Russian Empire. In this view, the
people’s national liberation aspirations were either ignored or deliberately denied. However,
after Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and other Central Asian states gained independence, attitudes
toward this historical event changed drastically. Modern historians now interpret the movement
as a national liberation struggle against colonial policies, striving to uncover its true nature.
Recent scholarly research based on archival documents and the memories of local witnesses has
contributed to a fuller understanding of the movement’s complexity, scope, and the deep
impression it left on the consciousness of the people. In this process, it is essential not only to
restore historical truth but also to acknowledge and honor our people’s courageous struggle for
freedom and justice.
Main Body.
The 1916 Turkestan People's Movement was not merely a local event, but a large-
scale wave of resistance shaped against colonial policies in the region. Its roots lie in past social
injustices, political oppression, and economic exploitation.[1] This movement, by its nature,
scope of interpretation, and historical evaluation, remains a subject of ongoing debate among
scholars and the public.
During the Soviet historiographical period, this movement was
primarily viewed through the lens of class struggle. Its national-liberation essence, however,
remained largely unexpressed until more recent times. Nevertheless, some scholars striving to
reveal historical truth have described this process not only as a struggle against exploitation, but
also as a significant stage in the awakening of national identity. In the post-independence period,
a new approach to the 1916 movement has emerged in the historiography of Central Asian states,
especially in Kazakhstan and Turkestan.[2] In scholarly literature, this event is increasingly seen
as a national liberation war, and at times, as a revolutionary movement. For example,
academician M. Qoziboyev refers to this movement as "a revolution against colonialism in the
East." According to him, the events of 1916 represented the collapse of imperial policy and a
step towards national awakening and political transformation.[3] Other researchers interpret the
movement as a national uprising that contributed to the restoration of traditional state institutions
and the formation of economic and political alternatives. It should be noted that these various
perspectives shape different understandings of the movement's actual dynamics, as historical
sources and figures reveal the complexity of the events.
In addition, the issue of the casualties among Turkestan peoples during the movement has also
become a subject of wide discussion. Some sources note that over 100,000 people lost their lives,
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while other studies claim the number may have reached between 150,000 and 300,000.[7]
Demographic losses, mass displacement, famine, and disease—all these consequences were
closely linked to the brutal suppression of the movement. In particular, in post-Soviet
historiography, the issue of "genocide"[6] raised by historians makes the topic even more
pressing. It is increasingly argued that the movement may have involved not only political
suppression but also elements of ethnic cleansing.[4]
Another significant issue is the potential influence of external forces in the outbreak of the revolt.
Some researchers have noted that German or Ottoman intelligence and propaganda were active
in Turkestan and that their religious and political appeals intensified public discontent.[5]
However, existing sources are insufficient to draw firm conclusions in this regard. Credible
evidence suggests that the movement primarily emerged as a result of internal social, economic,
and political pressures. Moreover, the events of 1916 are now being re-evaluated not just as a
"revolt," but as a phenomenon that contributed to the formation of national identity, historical
memory, and political maturity in the region.[2]
One of the most important tasks for contemporary historiography is to re-examine the essence of
the 1916 Turkestan People's Movement free from political and ideological biases. The movement
should not be interpreted as a “spontaneous uprising,” but rather as an eruption of historical
discontent deeply rooted in the collective consciousness of the people. It emerged in response to
the intensification of Tsarist Russia’s exploitative policies, particularly issues related to land, tax
burdens, and the mobilization decree.[3]
Today, reassessing historical truth is not only a scholarly obligation but also a cultural and moral
responsibility. The mass massacres, deportations, famine, and disease that occurred during the
1916 movement left a deep and lasting impact on the history of our people.[1] The deaths of
countless individuals, the disintegration of families, and the rupture of cultural memory must be
given special attention in current historical analysis.
Furthermore, viewing the movement not merely as a local expression of dissent, but as an
integral part of a broader regional awakening and political formation, helps to restore its true
historical significance. The 1916 Turkestan People's Movement was a struggle for freedom,
dignity, and life by an entire nation. To assess it solely through the lens of class struggle or
foreign provocation is a one-sided approach to history. This movement is an inseparable part of
national memory and represents the historical courage of our people in their fight against
colonial oppression.
Future historical research must deeply analyze the social, demographic, political, and cultural
consequences of this movement, serving as an important step toward illuminating the difficult
path of the Turkestan peoples in their pursuit of freedom.
Conclusion.
The 1916 Turkestan People's Movement was not merely a temporary protest born
out of the socio-economic and political crises of its time, but rather one of the most vivid and
significant expressions of the people’s centuries-long aspiration for national and human freedom.
In its essence, causes, and consequences, this movement left a profound mark on the history of
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our people and holds historical value as a form of national resistance against colonial oppression.
The roots of the movement lie in the Russian Empire’s long-standing policies of economic
exploitation, political discrimination, and disregard for the customs, religious beliefs, and social
values of the local population. The wide scale and intensity of the movement demonstrate that it
was not confined to one or two regions but emerged as a nationwide uprising throughout
Turkestan. Among those who took part were peasants, artisans, herders, religious scholars, and
even some local intellectuals, confirming the movement’s broad and diverse social base. Despite
lacking any organized political support or military strength, they fought for their freedom,
dignity, and future. The armed clashes, mass casualties, the deaths of thousands of innocent
people, and the forced displacement of many families—all of these events, though tragic, reflect
our people’s unwavering desire for independence and liberty.
During the Soviet era, these events were interpreted through the lens of official ideology, often
reduced to a class struggle while ignoring their nature as a national liberation movement. This
approach led to a distortion of historical truth in the public consciousness. However, in the post-
independence period—especially with the development of national historiographies in
Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other regional states—this movement has begun to be
reevaluated from a new and more just perspective. Today, the 1916 Turkestan People's
Movement is being rediscovered as an integral part of national self-awareness, political
awakening, and the broader struggle for freedom. Moreover, the tragedies that occurred during
this movement—including mass killings, refugee crises, and acts of genocide against the
population—now necessitate the restoration of historical truth, the honoring of the memory of
the victims, and the establishment of historical justice. This event should serve not only as a
historical fact illuminating the past but also as a source of inspiration in our people’s ongoing
pursuit of freedom, justice, and national unity.
Thus, the 1916 people's movement holds great importance for us—not only as a lesson from the
past but also as a historical experience that guides our future. It serves as a solid foundation for
preserving historical memory, fostering national pride and identity, and strengthening the
struggle for justice and truth.
REFERENCES
1.
Abduqahorov, A. (2025). Measures for Establishing National Statehood in the Turkestan
Autonomy. Academic International Conference on Multi-Disciplinary Studies and Education, Pittsburgh,
USA.
2.Abduqahorov, A. (2025). THE POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD: THE TURKESTAN Uprising in Modern
Russian Historiography. New Uzbekistan, Journal of New Studies, 2(9). https://phoenixpublication.net/
3.Abduqahorov, A. (2025). THE 1916 Uprisings in Turkistan: Causes, Stages and History. Science and
Innovations, 3(17), 4–5.
https://in-academy.uz/index.php/si/article/view/52510
4. Abduqahorov, A. (2025). SOCIAL INJUSTICE AND THE BEGINNING OF NATIONAL LIBERATION
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MOVEMENTS IN TURKESTAN (LATE 19TH – EARLY 20TH CENTURY). In Central Asian Journal of Academic
Research (Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 111–113). Zenodo.
5. Abduqahorov, A. A. (2025). Turkestan resistance movements in contemporary Russian historical
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6. Булдаков, В., Леонтьева, Т. (2015). Война, породившая революцию: Россия, 1914—1917 гг.
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7. Pianciola, N. (2009). Stalinism on the Frontier: Agricultural Colonization, Extermination of Nomads,
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