62
"Salomlashish", "Murojaat", "Xayirlashuv" vaziyatlarida bir kishi kun davomida qayta-qayta
duch keladi, nutq ko‗nikmalarini avtomatlashtirish nutqiy etiket formulalarini desemantizatsiya qilishga
olib keladi. Biroq shu bilan birga bu erda tanlov amalga oshiriladi, ―nutqni avtomatlashtirish‖ aldamasligi
kerak, chunki bunday nutq mexanik ravishda tanlansada, shubhasiz, til vositalariga faol munosabatni
bildiradi [1; 8].
Sanab o‗tilgan vaziyztlarda nutqiy etiket formulalarinig avtomatik tanlovi, suhbatdoshning
―o'rtacha‖ holatidagina sodir bo‗ladi. Shu bilan birga, sinonimik qatorning stilistik jihatdan neytral,
dominant birliklari mos keladigan intonatsion bezak qo‗llaniladi [2; 16]. Biroq, nutqiy etiket
formulasining bunday ―o‗rtacha‖ intonatsion xususiyatlari o‗rnatilgan aloqa maqsada qarab talaffuz,
salomlashish va murojaat formulalar kabi, yoki bo‗lmasa yakunlash maqsadida xayrlashuv formulasi kabi
o‗zgarib boradi. Shunday qilib, bir mavzu guruhining nutqiy etiket formulasini bir necha bor takrorlash
ma‘lum bir vaziyatda o‗ziga xos talaffuz stereotipini yaratadi, u yoki bu darajada jumla ma‘nosini
o‗zgartirishi, muloyim muloqot ohangidan qo‗pollikka o‗tishi va butunlay muloqotni to‗xtatishi mumkin.
Intonatsiyani biz keng ma‘noda elementlarni o‗zaro bog‗langan xuddi bitta so‗zdek tushunamiz:
ohang, temp, ovoz balandligi, pauzalar va urg‗ular. Intonatiyaning akustik tuzilishi asosiy ohang
chastotasi (AOCH) va o‗z vaqtida tezlashuvi majmuini o‗zida namoyon etadi.
Til va nutqda intonatsiya gaplarning kommunikativ turlarini, gap qismlarini semantik
ahamiyatiga, shakliga ko‗ra ajratadi, gapni ritmik guruh va sintagmalarga bo‗lib, bir butun ifodada
sayqallaydi; aniq his-tuyg‗ularni ifodalaydi, matn osti ifodani ochib beradi, so‗zlovchi va muloqot
vaziyatni tavsiflaydi.
ADABIYOTLAR:
1. Armengaud, F. (2007),
La pragmatique
, Paris, PUF (5
e
éd.)
2. Blanchet, Ph. (1995),
La Pragmatique
, Paris, Bertrand Lacoste, Coll. "Référence".
BACKGROUND
OF
BORROWED
WORDS
IN
THE
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
AND
THEIR
TRANSLATION
Avezimbetova A.
teacher, NSPI named after Ajiniyaz, Nukus, Uzbekistan
Kaljanova U.
teacher, NSPI named after Ajiniyaz, Nukus, Uzbekistan
In linguistics,
a calque
or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by
literal, word-for-word or root-for-root translation. Used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or
phrase from another language while translating its components so as to create a new lexeme in the target
language. "Calque" itself is a loan word from a French noun, and derives from the verb "calquer" (to
trace, to copy). Loan translation is itself a calque of the German "Lehnubersetzung". Proving a word is a
calque sometimes requires more documentation than an untranslated loan word, since in some cases a
similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when
the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the language proposed to be borrowing,
or the calque contains less obvious imagery.
New words.
New technology, new fashions, new problems, new attitudes: the world is changing
all the time and so is the English language. Every year new words are invented. Some become a
permanent part of the language; others fall out of the language again when they are no longer needed.
There's a display to show how far you've drilled down. From this page you can click through to all kinds
of interesting stuff. A completely new verb may be formed by adding the adverb to a noun or an
adjective, for example page through something:
She paged through the report looking for her name. We'll
have to scope out the project before we can estimate the time it'll take.
Phrasal verbs are often turned into
compound nouns and adjectives using a hyphen:
We improved our click-through rate by 30%. We provide
a walk-through (= a guide) to familiarize users with the dictionary [1; 98].
Compounds are the commonest type of new word, when two existing words are combined to give
a new meaning. It is not hard to guess what an asylum seeker is, or home-schooling, if you know what the
elements mean. One new combination inspires another. You probably know hardware and software, but
do you know liveware and wetware, formed on the same principles?
New words can be easier to remember if they rhyme, for example chick flick or shock jock, or
alliterate (= repeat the same first letter), for example pester power and drag-and-drop. These new
compounds are often imaginative or humorous, because they show connections between things that seem
to be very different. Some examples are fashion victim (= someone who takes fashion too seriously),
63
golden handcuffs (= money used to encourage someone to stay in their job), and industrial-strength (used
to talk about things other than industrial products).
I've got an industrial-strength hangover.
Portmanteau words, also called blends, are similar to compounds but may include only part of
one or both of the original words in the new word: documentary + soap (opera) = docusoap.
The figure
they've given is nothing more than a guesstimate (= guess + estimate).
Alterations to old words. Old words are given new forms to make them sound more fashionable
or humorous. For example, they are shortened, like
prezzie (= present)
and
barbie (= barbecue).
Sometimes the second part of a compound word may be omitted, like
cell (= cellphone).
In other cases
the initial letters of a compound may be run together to form a new word, such as JPEG (from Joint
Photographic Experts Group) [2; 122].
Sometimes words are altered by being used as a different part of speech. An example of this is
text, which was originally only a noun, but is now often used as a verb:
Text me when you know what time
you'll be arriving.
Loan words are words that are borrowed from other languages. They often refer to foreign things
- food, sports - that become popular or well-known in English-speaking countries.
Sashimi
(= slices of
raw fish served with sauce) is from Japanese,
capoeira
(= a Brazilian martial art) from Portuguese and
hijab
(= a head covering worn by some Muslim women) from Persian and Arabic.
Proper names. New products which are introduced are another source of new words, especially if
the type of product becomes particularly associated with one brand. This has happened, for example, with
Bluetooth
and
Palmcorder
. Sometimes these brand names become so well-known that they can even be
used as verbs:
If you don't know what it means, you can google it.
Names of people or fictional characters
can also sometimes be taken up and used as normal words:
He lives a Walter Mitty existence (= he is not
in touch with reality) [3; 67].
New meanings for old words: sometimes the need for a new word can be filled by extending the
meaning of a word that already exists.
For example,
in a business context a beauty contest is an occasion on which several competing
companies or people try to persuade somediv to use their services; and wallpaper in computing is the
background that you have on your computer screen.
Adoption of the vocabulary is the interaction in rapprochement the nation on the ground of
economical, cultural, political, and scientific relations. The bright example of this is the French
borrowings. But many of them were exposed by different morphological, phonetic and lexical
modifications and they have lost its French character and that is why they do not apprehend as foreign
words. The way that words passed through to get into the English language was multiple-stage.
Obeying the rules of adopting language some of them evolved new meanings which do not
peculiar to their original variants.
Accumulating with new meanings adopted word enlarges the sphere of possible word
combinations, deeper penetrates into vocabulary, and more bifurcates its semantic structure with the other
words. And at the same time it is clearly distinguished as an independent lexical unit of the language.
To my mind we examined the problem of different adoptions in the English language. We have
studied various ways of penetrating foreign words into the English vocabulary. But in spite of this it has
not lost its originality.
REFERENCES:
1.
Arnold I.V. Lexicology of the Modern English language. -- Moscow, 1989
2.
Buranov J. A Practical Course in English Lexicology. Tashkent, 1990.
3.
Chambers J.K., Trudgill P. Dialectology. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
4.
Hughes G. A History of English Words. Series: The Language Library. Blackwell Publishers,
1999.
