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CONSCRIPTION AND USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS AS A WAR CRIME BY THE
HOUTHIS IN YEMEN
Ghulam Mohammad Qanet
Assistant Professor, Public Law Department, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Herat
University.
Email:
M. Naeem Moslem
Assistant Professor,
Department of Hadith, Faculty of Sharia and Law, Herat University.
Email:
Abdul Raqib Zargham
Teaching Assistant Professor, Criminal Law Department, Faculty of Law and Political
Science, Herat University.
Email:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15328162
Abstract. This paper examines the alarming practice of child soldier recruitment by the
Houthi movement in Yemen’s ongoing armed conflict, highlighting the widespread and
systematic nature of this war crime. The study focuses on the methods used by the Houthis to
recruit children, some as young as eight years old, for both combat and auxiliary support roles.
It delves into the devastating physical, psychological, and social consequences these children
face, including injuries, permanent disabilities, and long-term trauma such as post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD). The objective of this research is to analyze the recruitment and use of
child soldiers by the Houthis, framing these actions as clear violations of International
Humanitarian Law (IHL) and human rights conventions, such as the Geneva Conventions, the
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court (ICC). The methodology employs a qualitative approach, utilizing reports from
international human rights organizations, UN documentation, and eyewitness testimonies to
assess the scope of these violations. The study aims to raise awareness about the unlawful use of
children in armed conflict by the Houthis and the broader societal impact on Yemen. The
findings indicate that the Houthi movement systematically violates international law by
conscripting and deploying child soldiers. In conclusion, the paper calls for urgent international
action, including legal accountability, child protection policies, and comprehensive
rehabilitation programs for former child soldiers.
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Keyword: Child Protection, Child Soldiers, Houthi Movement, War Crimes, Yemen
Conflict.
ВЕРБОВКА И ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ ДЕТЕЙ-СОЛДАТ КАК ВОЕННОЕ
ПРЕСТУПЛЕНИЕ ХУСИТАМИ В ЙЕМЕНЕ
Аннотация. В этой статье рассматривается тревожная практика вербовки
детей-солдат движением хуситов в продолжающемся вооруженном конфликте в
Йемене, подчеркивая широко распространенный и систематический характер этого
военного преступления. Исследование фокусируется на методах, используемых хуситами
для вербовки детей, некоторым из которых было всего восемь лет, как для боевых, так и
для вспомогательных вспомогательных ролей. В нем рассматриваются разрушительные
физические, психологические и социальные последствия, с которыми сталкиваются эти
дети, включая травмы, постоянную инвалидность и долгосрочные травмы, такие как
посттравматическое стрессовое расстройство (ПТСР). Целью данного исследования
является анализ вербовки и использования детей-солдат хуситами, представляя эти
действия как явные нарушения международного гуманитарного права (МГП) и конвенций
по правам человека, таких как Женевские конвенции, Конвенция о правах ребенка (КПР) и
Римский статут Международного уголовного суда (МУС). Методология использует
качественный подход, используя отчеты международных организаций по правам
человека, документацию ООН и свидетельства очевидцев для оценки масштабов этих
нарушений. Целью исследования является повышение осведомленности о незаконном
использовании детей в вооруженном конфликте хуситами и более широком
общественном влиянии на Йемен. Результаты показывают, что движение хуситов
систематически нарушает международное право, вербуя и отправляя детей-солдат. В
заключение в документе содержится призыв к срочным международным действиям,
включая правовую ответственность, политику защиты детей и комплексные программы
реабилитации для бывших детей-солдат.
Ключевые слова: Защита детей, Дети-солдаты, Движение хуситов, Военные
преступления, Йеменский конфликт.
1-
Introduction
The ongoing conflict in Yemen, which began in 2014, has been characterized by extensive
human rights abuses, with the recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthi movement among
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the most severe. Children as young as eight are being forcibly conscripted or manipulated into
participating in the conflict, often through abduction, coercion, or ideological indoctrination. Once
recruited, these children are placed in extremely hazardous roles, from frontline combat to logistics
support, exposing them to life-threatening violence, physical injury, and deep psychological trauma.
This practice is not only morally reprehensible but constitutes a clear violation of IHL and
various human rights treaties. This paper aims to analyze the Houthi movement’s use of child
soldiers through the lens of international legal frameworks, specifically the Geneva Conventions, the
Convention on the CRC, and the ICC. Each of these instruments prohibits the recruitment and use of
children under the age of 15 in armed conflict, defining such acts as war crimes. However, the
continued exploitation of children by the Houthis highlights the failure of these legal mechanisms to
deter or prevent violations in practice, particularly in conflict zones where law enforcement and
accountability are weak or nonexistent.
The research will use a qualitative methodology, sourcing data from reports by international
human rights organizations, UN documents, eyewitness testimonies, and legal texts. This approach
aims to provide a well-rounded analysis of the legal, humanitarian, and social implications of child
soldier recruitment. The study will also evaluate the broader impact of these practices, which
destabilize communities, erode familial structures, and trap children in cycles of violence and trauma.
Survivors often face lifelong consequences such as PTSD, physical disabilities, and societal
exclusion, all of which hinder their reintegration and development. Key research questions guiding
this study include: How are children recruited by the Houthis? In what ways do these actions violate
international law? What are the immediate and lasting effects on child soldiers? And what policy and
legal measures can be implemented to prevent such recruitment and rehabilitate victims? Ultimately,
this paper seeks to raise awareness of the Houthi group’s systematic use of child soldiers and
advocate for stronger international legal enforcement, improved child protection policies, and robust
rehabilitation programs. Ensuring justice for these children is essential not only for their recovery but
also for achieving lasting peace and stability in Yemen.
2-
International Legal Framework of on War Crime
The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols (1949, 1977) form the backbone
of IHL, providing a legal structure aimed at regulating the conduct of armed conflict and
ensuring protection for civilians and combatants, particularly vulnerable groups such as children.
The Geneva Conventions include provisions for the protection of civilians during war and
prohibit the recruitment and use of children in hostilities.
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Protocol II, adopted in 1977, extends these protections to non-international armed
conflicts, which are particularly relevant in situations like the conflict in Yemen. This protocol
explicitly prohibits the recruitment of children into armed groups and mandates the provision of
care and education for children in conflict zones (Dinstein, 2023). These instruments set clear
standards for the humane treatment of children, ensuring they are not exploited as combatants or
subjected to the atrocities of war. Alongside the Geneva Conventions, the CRC, adopted in 1989
by the UN, provides a more comprehensive framework for the protection of children's rights,
including during times of armed conflict. The CRC establishes that children under the age of 15
should not be recruited into armed forces or armed groups, emphasizing their protection from
violence, exploitation, and the devastating impacts of war (Arts, 2014; 287-300; Kilkelly, 2020;
6-12). The Convention stresses that States should refrain from actions that would endanger
children’s lives or subject them to military service in violation of their rights. The CRC is a
universally ratified treaty, which means it has achieved near-global consensus on child protection
in both peacetime and wartime, establishing the international community's commitment to
preventing the use of child soldiers. However, despite this broad consensus, enforcement remains
a significant challenge in conflict zones where state actors and non-state groups continue to
violate the rights of children (Neagu, 2024; 578-585).
The ICC, which entered into force in 2002, further strengthens the legal framework for
addressing child soldier recruitment. Under Article 8 of the Rome Statute, the recruitment or use
of children under the age of 15 in armed conflict is classified as a war crime. The ICC is
empowered to prosecute individuals responsible for such war crimes, including both state and
non-state actors. The Statute is an essential tool for international justice, as it holds individuals
personally accountable for grave violations of international law, including the use of child
soldiers. The ICC provides an international legal venue to seek justice for victims of these
crimes, ensuring that perpetrators are not only held accountable for their actions but also that
international norms against the recruitment and use of child soldiers are reinforced (Alwheebe,
2024: 1261-1262). Together, the Geneva Conventions, the CRC, and the ICC create a
comprehensive international legal framework designed to protect children from the horrors of
armed conflict. These legal instruments aim to prevent the exploitation of children as soldiers
and ensure that those who engage in such practices face legal consequences. However, while
these frameworks provide a strong legal basis for child protection, their implementation has
often been inconsistent, especially in regions experiencing prolonged conflicts like Yemen.
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Despite widespread ratification of these treaties, child soldier recruitment continues to
occur, highlighting the challenges of enforcing international law in conflict zones. Therefore,
while the legal framework is robust, its effectiveness depends on the political will of states, the
cooperation of international organizations, and the capacity of courts like the ICC to prosecute
violators and hold them accountable (Arai-Takahashi, 2019: 28-31; Alwheebe, 2024: 1262-
1269).
3-
Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers by the Houthis
The recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthi movement in Yemen represents
one of the most severe violations of IHL and children's rights (Hokayem, 2023: 167-176). Since
the escalation of the conflict in Yemen, particularly after the Houthis seized control of the
capital, Sanaa, in 2014, the group has consistently exploited children for military purposes
(Cohn, 2014: 182-190; Ali, 2020). The Houthis have been accused of forcibly recruiting
children, including those as young as 10 years old, into their ranks. Many of these children are
taken from rural and impoverished areas where the reach of the state is limited, making it easier
for the Houthis to target vulnerable populations. Children are often abducted from schools,
homes, or markets, and many are coerced or manipulated into joining by being promised food,
money, or protection. The recruitment process is often accompanied by propaganda and
ideological manipulation, with children being told they are fighting to defend their families,
religion, and country. This practice of child soldier recruitment is a direct violation of
international conventions such as the Geneva Conventions and the CRC, both of which prohibit
the involvement of children in armed conflict (Ryan, April 7, 2023; Rabeeah, 2025: 34).
The recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthi movement in Yemen has been a
persistent and growing issue from 2014 to 2025, with evidence showing widespread and systematic
exploitation of children in the ongoing conflict. The 2014 period marked a significant shift in the
conflict when the Houthis, who had already established a strong presence in Yemen, took control
of the capital, Sanaa (Ali, 2020). This marked the beginning of large-scale recruitment efforts that
targeted children, primarily from vulnerable and impoverished communities. Early reports
highlighted the abduction of children as young as eight years old and the use of forced
conscription, where children were either kidnapped or coerced into joining the group under duress.
During this time, many children were recruited from rural areas, which were often the most
marginalized regions in Yemen, making it easier for the Houthis to exploit their situation
(
Abdulkader, 2023: 43-51).
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By 2015 and 2016, the practice of child soldier recruitment became even more
widespread, with reports from Human Rights Watch and UN International Children's Emergency
Fund (UNICEF) detailing the use of children in combat roles across Houthi-controlled territories
(Human Rights Watch, February 13, 2024). The Houthis, alongside their allies, began forcibly
conscripting children to participate directly in the fighting. The children were subjected to
military training camps, where they were taught how to use weapons, participate in combat
missions, and adopt the Houthi ideology (Al Dosari, 2020: 53-62). The year 2017 was
particularly dire, with Human Rights Watch reporting that the Houthis had recruited thousands
of children, some as young as 10 years old, and forced them into frontline roles. During this
period, the children were not only used as fighters but also as spies, messengers, and human
shields (Yuan, 2023: 217-224; Virginia Gamba, 15 April 2019). In some cases, children were
even deployed in suicide missions or used in bombing attacks, showcasing the extreme nature of
their exploitation (Human Rights Watch, February 13, 2024).
The years 2018 and 2019 saw an increase in the international spotlight on the issue of child
soldiers in Yemen, with the UN monitoring and reporting the growing number of children being
recruited by the Houthis. By 2019, the UNICEF report documented over 3,000 cases of children
being forcibly recruited, a figure that only captured a fraction of the true scale. These children were
often taken from their schools, homes, and local communities, where the Houthis promised
protection and a sense of purpose in the conflict (UNICEF, 2022). Military training included
indoctrination into the Houthi ideology, as well as intensive combat drills. By the end of 2019, it
became clear that the recruitment of child soldiers was not only a widespread phenomenon but one
that was becoming institutionalized within the Houthi movement (Aral, 2024: 134-143).
From 2020 to 2025, the issue of child soldier recruitment by the Houthis remained a
persistent and urgent problem, despite efforts by international organizations to curtail this
practice. According to Human Rights Watch by 2020, the number of child soldiers in Houthi
ranks had surpassed 10,000, with children being recruited for a wide range of combat and
support roles (Arab News, April 19, 2025). During this period, children were still being abducted
and coerced, often with little to no resistance from the international community due to the
complexity of the conflict (Human Rights Watch, February 13, 2024). The Houthi forces
continued to use children in frontline combat, logistical support, and propaganda roles, and many
were still subjected to intense indoctrination. Moreover, children were increasingly exposed to
extreme violence, including bombings, gunfights, and explosive devices, which left a deep
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physical and psychological impact. These children were frequently injured, some losing limbs or
suffering from severe trauma, and the humanitarian crisis continued to deepen (Sheikh, 2022: 7-
20; Nessa, 2024: 373-386).
By 2025, the UN Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (MRM) reported a continuing
trend of child recruitment by the Houthis, with the total number of child soldiers likely
surpassing 3,000 (Virginia Gamba, 15 April 2019). Despite international condemnation and calls
for accountability, the Houthi leadership showed little willingness to end the practice. Efforts to
provide psychosocial support and rehabilitation programs for former child soldiers were grossly
inadequate, and many children faced traumatization upon returning to their families due to the
lack of resources and support systems. As the war in Yemen drags on, these children are caught
in a cycle of violence, with many having no chance of escape from the horrors of war
(
Barltrop,
2025: 19-27; Senan, 2023).
These years, from 2014 to 2025, demonstrate the systematic and entrenched nature of
child soldier recruitment by the Houthis, and highlight the grave human rights violations
committed by the group. The ongoing conflict, combined with the failure of international
interventions to curb the recruitment, has resulted in a generation of Yemeni children being
subjected to the most horrific forms of exploitation and violence. This trend underscores the
urgent need for international action, including legal accountability, humanitarian aid, and
protection mechanisms to safeguard Yemen's children from further suffering and exploitation
(Adewumi, 2024: 110-126; Human Rights Watch, February 13, 2024).
4-
Impact on Children
The recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthis in Yemen have had catastrophic
physical and psychological consequences for the children involved (Haight, 2024: 1-5).
Physically, many children suffer from life-threatening injuries due to their exposure to intense
combat situations. Children as young as eight years old have been deployed in active battle
zones, where they face dangers such as landmines, gunfire, and bombings. As a result, many
children have sustained severe injuries, including amputations, spinal cord damage, and burns,
leaving them permanently disabled (Ali, 2020). The psychological toll is equally devastating.
Children exposed to such violence often develop PTSD, anxiety, depression, and other
mental health disorders. The trauma of losing friends and family members, combined with the
emotional weight of participating in or witnessing brutal acts of violence, often leaves these
children emotionally scarred for life.
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The harsh conditions they endure, including forced indoctrination and abuse, contribute
significantly to long-term psychological distress, making it difficult for these children to function
normally in society even after their release (Yuan, 2023: 217-224).
The long-term effects of child soldier recruitment extend well beyond the individual
child, profoundly impacting Yemeni society as a whole. These children, once exposed to
violence and deprived of their education, face significant challenges in reintegrating into their
communities. Their limited access to education during their formative years means that many
have no skills to build a stable future, contributing to a lost generation that is ill-equipped to
contribute to the country's rebuilding (Sheikh, 2022: 9-15). Additionally, the psychological and
emotional trauma carried by these children perpetuates cycles of violence. The normalization of
violence within the younger generation increases the risk of future conflict, as these children
grow into adults who may struggle to break free from the patterns of violence they were forced
to adopt. This generational trauma also impacts families and communities, leaving a lasting
burden on Yemeni society. As these children return home, they often find themselves alienated
from their families due to the difficulties they face in overcoming their trauma (Abdalatif,
2021:22-27).
Further complicating the situation, there are significant social and economic
consequences for the families of child soldiers. Many children are taken from impoverished
communities, where families are already struggling to survive. The loss of a child to the conflict
not only devastates these families emotionally but also impacts their economic well-being. Many
children, once recruited, are the primary earners in their households, and their disappearance
further entrenches the poverty of their families. In addition to the economic hardship, families
are often left without support or resources to cope with the return of a child soldier, particularly
if that child comes back physically injured or psychologically damaged. The lack of adequate
rehabilitation programs for former child soldiers exacerbates the difficulties families face in
trying to reintegrate these children back into everyday life
(
Dönmez, 2023: 85-93).
Survivors of the conflict and eyewitness accounts provide haunting testimonies of the
realities children face in the hands of the Houthis. One survivor recounted how he was recruited
at the age of 12, after being lured by promises of food and safety, only to find himself placed on
the front lines where he was forced to carry weapons and fight. Another survivor spoke of the
psychological abuse suffered during the months of indoctrination, where they were taught to
view themselves as soldiers of a religious cause, only to later realize the horrors of war and the
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deep personal cost (Reliefweb, 15 Feb 2021). Eyewitnesses have also reported seeing children
who, after being released from Houthi control, were unable to reintegrate into their communities
due to the deep trauma and stigmatization they faced. These firsthand accounts highlight not only
the dehumanizing nature of child soldier recruitment but also the profound social rifts it creates,
where children are not only victims of violence but also abandoned by their society when they
try to return home. The stories of survivors emphasize the urgent need for international
intervention and long-term rehabilitation strategies to address the physical and psychological
scars that these children bear
(
Hasona, 2021).
5-
Legal Analysis: A War Crime
The recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthis in Yemen constitutes a clear
violation of international law, specifically under the frameworks that define war crimes. According
to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols, the use of children in armed
conflict is prohibited under Article 77 of Additional Protocol I and Article 4(3)(c) of Additional
Protocol II (Rasakandan, 2022: 230- 241). The ICC further defines the conscription and use of
child soldiers as a war crime, under Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi), which criminalizes the enlistment or use
of children under the age of 15 in hostilities. These instruments reflect the international
community's commitment to protecting children from the horrors of war, recognizing their
vulnerability and the need to safeguard their rights during conflicts (Arai-Takahashi, 2019: 28-31;
Alwheebe, 2024: 1262- 1269).
The Houthi recruitment of children blatantly violates these provisions, as well as
international human rights law, including the CRC, which mandates that children be protected
from participation in war and armed conflict. The Houthis have systematically abducted,
coerced, or manipulated children, often as young as eight, to serve as combatants, spies, and
messengers, exposing them to extreme violence and exploitation. These actions violate multiple
aspects of the CRC, particularly the prohibition of using children in combat and the obligation to
protect children from all forms of abuse. The Houthi group’s actions are thus not only a breach
of customary international law but also an affront to the basic principles of child protection
enshrined in global treaties (Reliefweb, 15 Feb 2021; Knights, 2024: 9-16).
Despite the clear violations of international law, there has been limited accountability for
the Houthis regarding their recruitment of child soldiers. While the UN and human rights
organizations have documented and condemned the practice, prosecution and enforcement
mechanisms remain weak
(
Farhat, 2022: 2014-2021).
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The ICC has jurisdiction over crimes committed by parties to the Rome Statute, but the
Houthis have not been formally prosecuted due to Yemen’s non-ratification of the statute. This
leaves the Houthis largely immune from international legal action, underscoring the importance
of strengthening international efforts to hold perpetrators accountable. The lack of accountability
impedes justice for the children affected and sends a dangerous message that such abuses may go
unpunished. However, continued advocacy by international human rights bodies and pressure on
states to support the ICC’s mandate is essential in ensuring that the Houthis face justice for their
actions (Serr, 2017: 357-369).
6-
Conclusion
The recruitment and use of child soldiers by the Houthi movement in Yemen stands as a
grave violation of IHL and a profound human rights tragedy. Thousands of children, some as young
as eight, have been forcibly conscripted, coerced, or manipulated into joining the front lines.
Deprived of their right to safety, education, and a peaceful childhood, these children are
exposed to extreme violence, trauma, and exploitation. Many return physically and psychologically
scarred, grappling with PTSD and social isolation that hinder reintegration into civilian life. This
brutal practice not only dehumanizes children but threatens the future of Yemen, as it deprives a
generation of the opportunity to grow, learn, and lead. Although legal instruments such as the
Geneva Conventions, the Convention on the CRC, and the ICC explicitly prohibit child soldier
recruitment, enforcement remains weak. Yemen’s non-ratification of the Rome Statute has shielded
perpetrators from prosecution, fostering a climate of impunity. Despite well-documented evidence of
abuses, meaningful accountability remains elusive. To address this crisis, the international
community must move beyond condemnation and act decisively. This includes pressuring the
Houthis to end child recruitment, reinforcing international legal mechanisms, and supporting
comprehensive rehabilitation for former child soldiers. Advocacy efforts by organizations like
UNICEF and Human Rights Watch must be matched by concrete international action. Only through
sustained pressure, legal accountability, and humanitarian support can we begin to reverse the
damage and offer Yemen’s children hope for a safer, more just future.
7-
Suggestions
1.
Strengthen Monitoring and Documentation: Increase efforts to monitor and document the
recruitment of child soldiers in Yemen, utilizing technologies such as satellite imagery and on-the-
ground reports from survivors and local organizations to ensure accurate tracking of violations.
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2.
Establish Child Protection Coalitions: Form coalitions of international organizations,
governments, and NGOs dedicated to child protection in conflict zones, collaborating to create a
comprehensive and unified strategy to address child soldier recruitment.
3.
Pressure Regional Actors: Apply diplomatic and economic pressure on countries that
support or enable the Houthi movement, using tools like sanctions and trade restrictions to limit the
group's ability to recruit and exploit children.
4.
Increase Legal Accountability: Advocate for greater legal accountability through the ICC,
encouraging Yemen and other nations to adopt measures to prosecute those responsible for the
recruitment and use of child soldiers under international law.
5.
Expand Education and Vocational Training: Launch large-scale education and vocational
training programs aimed at providing children in Yemen with alternatives to joining armed groups,
focusing on long-term reintegration and community empowerment.
6.
Rehabilitation and Reintegration Programs: Focus on providing comprehensive rehabilitation
and reintegration programs for former child soldiers, including psychological support, education, and
social reintegration into their communities to ensure they can lead productive lives outside of conflict.
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