The American Journal of Applied Sciences
66
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TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
66-80
10.37547/tajas/Volume07Issue05-07
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
24March 2025
ACCEPTED
15 April 2025
PUBLISHED
28 May 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue 05 2025
CITATION
Bulycheva
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Groundwater quality
assessment in mining
communities in Western
and Central Regions of
Ghana
Emmanuel Amuah
Department of Public Health Education, University of Education
Winneba, Ghana.
Emmanuel Dartey
Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial
Development
Sabastian Samuel Kwesi
Department of Public Health Education, University of Education
Winneba, Ghana.
Corresponding Author -
emmanuelamuah4@gmail.com
and sabastianskwesi@gmail.com
Abstract:
The pollution of groundwater sources is a
major issue globally, particularly for developing
countries where the uncontrolled exploitation of natural
mineral resources and human activities could lead to the
pollution of water resources. The objective of this study
was to examine the quality of groundwater in selected
mining communities in the Central and Western regions
of Ghana. A total of fifty (50) water samples collected
from boreholes and wells in five mining communities;
Ayanfuri, Abenabena, Nkonya, Forbinso, and Gyamang
were analyzed for trace metals and physicochemical
properties. The Water Quality Index (WQI) method was
used to classify the various samples. Respondents
expressed concerns about the smell and salty taste of
groundwater. There was also high arsenic (1.028 mg/l
and 1.048 mg/L), iron (0.303 mg/L and 0.304 mg/l), and
cadmium (0.189 mg/l and 0.191 mg/l) pollution in the
study area which requires urgent attention due to the
potential adverse human health effects associated with
exposure to high levels of these trace metals. The study
revealed high turbidity in some groundwater samples in
the study area making them unhealthy for domestic use.
In the j
WQI classification, all the groundwater samples
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apart from Nkonya (Nk-w1, Nk-w2, and Nk-site w) which
were considered poor water were classified as good
water. There is a need to control the levels of arsenic,
iron, cadmium, and turbidity levels in groundwater in
the study area, particularly in Nkonya. Community
residents should be educated on the effects of
groundwater pollution.
Keywords:
Quality, Groundwater, Mining, Ghana, Heavy
metal.
Introduction:
Mining the process of extracting naturally
existing minerals from the earth is considered the
second oldest and most essential industry in the world
after agriculture (Amponsah-Tawiah, 2011). The mining
of gold alone has for decades employed most indigenous
people and several countries with enormous economic
development (Chuhan-Pole
et al.,
2015). Hirwa
et al.
(2019) identified five stages of mining prospecting,
exploration,
development,
exploitation,
and
reclamation. The African Union in 2009 reported that
Africa has the most reserves of gold, platinum,
diamonds, manganese, vanadium, and chromite in the
world (Duncan, 2020). However, Africa does not enjoy
the full benefits of this richness in mineral resources
since it is heavily burdened by the environmental effects
of mining (Saleem
et al.,
2008)
.
Many African nations
that are blessed with mineral resources are still
grappling with the several environmental challenges
associated with increasing mining activities such as
wastewater discharge, large amounts of mining waste,
and dissipative losses among others (Duncan, 2020).
Gold mining has now become unpopular in Ghana
because of the levels of pollution associated with it
(Rajaee
et al.,
2015). Afum & Owusu (2016) also
reported that there is growing public concern about the
condition of fresh waters in Ghana due to the rapidly
growing nature of the small-scale mining industry.
Several researchers have linked the pollution of some
surface and groundwater bodies in Ghana to gold mining
activities (Bempah
et al.,
2016; Cobbina
et al.,
2015;
Duncan, 2020; Mensah
et al.,
2015). Poor water quality
has been linked to public health concerns, mainly
through the transmission of water-borne diseases (Wu
et al.,
2017). To reduce water-related diseases and to
improve health in Ghana, several boreholes and wells
have been built in several rural communities and mining-
affected areas by the private sector, NGOs, and the
Ghanaian government. However, the monitoring of
water quality generally ceases once a water source has
been improved (Rossiter
et al.,
2010). Even though
almost three-fourths of the earth is made of water, only
a small proportion of it is safe for drinking purposes
(Alshikh, 2011). Water is an essential resource for all
forms of life and access to a reliable source of drinking
water is now recognized by the United Nations as a
human right (Cobbina
et al.,
2015). However, in rural
communities and particularly in places where access to
clean water is limited, people mostly use untreated
water for domestic purposes, including drinking
(Macdonald
et al.,
2015; Cobbina
et al.,
2013).
WHO/UNICEF (2010) reported that almost all of the
about 884 million people who do not have access to safe
drinking water sources are from developing countries.
Water that is used for drinking purposes must have
some level of quality and there are key physical,
biological, and chemical parameters that determine this
quality. The biological parameters include such things as
microbial populations; the chemical parameters include
cations and anions; and the physical parameters include
such characteristics as taste, smell, color, pH, turbidity,
temperature,
total
dissolved
solids,
electrical
conductivity, total suspended solids and total alkalinity
(Asamoah & Amorin, 2011). The protection and
management of water quality plays a vital role in
agriculture production, environmental sustenance
poverty
reduction,
and
sustainable
economic
development (Singh & Hussian, 2016). It is possible to
have seasonal variations in the quality of water but the
importance of safe and reliable sources of water cannot
be over-emphasized. It is therefore important that
water is readily available when needed, not just in the
right quantity, but also in the right quality devoid of
pollutants to meet the various needs for which it is
naturally or artificially applied (Akankali
et al.,
2017).
The storehouse of freshwater and the most commonly
used renewable source of water is groundwater (Krishan
et al.,
2016). Groundwater is an important source of
water supply throughout the world. Groundwater
occurs almost everywhere beneath the earth’s surface
not in a single widespread aquifer but in thousands of
local aquifer systems and compartments that have
similar characteristics (Singh & Hussian, 2016).
Groundwater consists of over 90% of the freshwater
resources on earth and it is an essential storage of good
quality water (Alshikh, 2011). The natural filtration
through soil and sediments makes the groundwater free
from organic impurities ( Saleem
et al.,
2016).
According to Gao
et al.
(2020), access to clean and safe
groundwater is a fundamental requirement for
sustainable human and social development. There is an
ever-increasing need for enhanced management of
surface and groundwater because they are the most
readily available source of water for human use, yet the
most polluted as a result of anthropogenic activities
(Ojekunle & Lateef, 2017). Anthropogenic activities that
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also pollute water bodies include excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural areas (Singh &
Hussian, 2016)
.
Unsafe groundwater adversely affects
the economy and hinders improvement in the living
conditions of rural people (Batabyal & Chakraborty,
2015). Yet groundwater quality and quantity are
worsening at a very fast rate due to human activities like
mining (Saleem
et al.,
2016). Water contamination from
mining activities results from the discharge of effluents,
which contain toxic chemicals such as cyanide and other
organic chemicals used in the processing of mineral
ores. These chemicals together may result in effluent
with high acid levels which can either seep into
underground water or flow into surface water bodies,
posing a threat to the nearby communities particularly
those that depend on such water bodies for drinking and
other domestic purposes (Duncan, 2020). Trace metal is
any metallic element that has a relatively low density
and is not toxic or poisonous at low concentrations.
However, excessive concentrations of these trace
metals can become detrimental to organisms with
unusually high concentrations becoming toxic to aquatic
organisms. Trace metals are characterized by
concentrations lower than 1mg in natural waters which
are obligatory by man in amounts ranging from 50
micrograms to 18 milligrams per day. Acting as catalytic
or structural components of larger molecules, they have
specific functions that are requisite for life (Kulaksız &
Bau, 2011). Heavy metals exist as natural constituents of
the
earth’s crust and are persistent environmental
contaminants because they cannot be degraded or
destroyed (Lenntech, 2004).
Some metals are essential to sustain life-calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium must be present for
normal div functions. Also, cobalt, copper, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, and zinc are required at low
levels as catalysts for enzyme activities (Alshikh, 2011).
Many of these compounds exist naturally, but their
concentration has increased as a result of anthropogenic
activities (Huang
et al.,
2014). Health risks of trace
metals include reduced growth and development,
cancer, organ damage, nervous system damage, and in
extreme cases, death. Exposure to some metals, such as
mercury and lead, may also cause the development of
autoimmuni
ty, in which a person’s immune system
attacks its cells. Heavy metals become toxic when they
are not metabolized by the div and accumulate in the
soft tissues (Malassa
et al.,
2013). The leaching of heavy
metal oxides into groundwater bodies also poses a
threat to communities that depend on such
groundwater sources (Huang
et al.,
2014).
There are two major mining activities practiced in the
Upper Denkyira West and Wassa Amenfi East
communities in the Western and Central regions of
Ghana; large-scale mining that uses sophisticated
machines and methods of mining and small-scale mining
that makes use of simple tools to extract gold from the
land. These mining activities have the potential to cause
heavy metal pollution of both surface and groundwater
resources in these communities (Attiogbe & Nkansah,
2017; Bempah
et al.,
2016; Duncan, 2020). Bempah
et
al.
(2016) examined heavy metal concentrations in
groundwater in communities in the southwestern parts
of the Ashanti Region. They found that the levels of As
and Fe were higher than the WHO permissible limits.
Groundwater is potable but unsuitable for drinking in
isolated locations due to high levels of As and Zn (Gyamfi
et al.,
2019). Macdonald
et al.
(2015) found that sites
with associated artisanal small-scale gold mining
(ASGM) activities had water qualities that did not meet
Ghana’s national standards for drinking water, with
manganese at particularly high concentrations. The
results of the above studies showed major variability in
the concentrations of various trace metals in
groundwater at various geographical locations. The
variability in trace metals and physicochemical
properties of groundwater in various parts of the
country emphasizes the need for regular monitoring of
all groundwater sources, especially in mining
communities (Gyamfi
et al.,
2019; Kulinkina
et al.,
2017).
Meanwhile, the selected mining communities have
bitterly complained about the poor quality of their water
sources such as the oil sheeny, smell/odor, taste, salt,
and color in the water (Asamoah
et al.,
2011) the five
study areas communities largely depend on wells and
boreholes sources for drinking purposes. In a news
article published by Graphic Online in October-03-2015,
residents of the Ayanfuri communities protested bitterly
against the unfair treatment of their water bodies which
influences the water quality by Perseus Mining Ghana
Limited (Aziz, 2015). Also, in another news article
published by Modern Ghana in its special report on May-
26-2020, the people of Ayanfuri blamed the operations
of Perseus Mining Ghana Limited for the acute water
shortage and groundwater pollution in surrounding
communities, which affected the economic activities of
the inhabitants (Aubyn, 2020).
However, studies on trace metal concentrations and the
physicochemical properties of groundwater in Ayanfuri
and its environs are scantily documented. Also, despite
the worldwide adoption of WQI as an effective way of
making conclusions about the quality of drinking water
has not been sufficiently utilized in Ghana to assess
groundwater quality. Finally, there is a paucity of
literature on the perceptions of community residents
about groundwater quality in Ghana, even though such
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perceptions are a reflection of problems associated with
groundwater (Kulinkina
et al.,
2017). The study sought
to assess groundwater quality in mining communities in
the Central and Western regions of Ghana
METHODOLOGY
Selection of sampling points
The study was conducted in five mining communities in
the Wassa Amenfi East and Upper Denkyira-West
Districts of the Western and Central Regions of Ghana
respectively. These five communities were selected
because of the mining activities in the area. A total of 25
sampling points were identified and selected in the five
communities. A total of fifty (50) samples were collected
from the 25 sampling points, which included 10
boreholes from the communities, and 15 hands dug
wells from the communities. The sampling points were
assigned codes as shown in Table 1
Table 1: Water sampling point
Sampling location
Code
Total number of samples
Abenabena
Ab-borehole 1
2
Ab-borehole 2
2
Ab-well 1
2
Ab-well 2
2
Ab-site well
2
Ayanfuri
Ay-borehole 1
2
Ay-borehole 2
2
Ay-well 1
2
Ay-well 2
2
Ay-site
2
Forbinso
Fb-borehole 1
2
Fb-borehole 2
2
Fb-well 1
2
Fb-well 2
2
Fb-site well
2
Gyamang
Gy-borehole 1
2
Gy-borehole 2
2
Gy-well 1
2
Gy-well 2
2
Gy-site well
2
Nkonya
Nk-borehole 1
2
Nk-borehole 2
2
Nk-wel 1
2
Nk-well 2
2
Nk-site well
2
Sample collection from groundwater
The bottles used for sample collection were 500 ml
plastic bottles. They were soaked in nitric acid the night
before sample collection, wash with liquid soap, rinse
three times with distilled water and dry in a cupboard.
The method used for this study is the Water Research
Commission (WRC) guideline (WRC, 2000). In other to
prevent light from affecting the physicochemical
parameters of the water samples, the plastic bottles
were covered with black polythene bags. The bottles
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were acid sterilized bottles and before the collection of
a sample, the bottles were rinsed five times with water
from the borehole or well. Samples were taken from the
boreholes after it has been pumped for five (5) minutes.
For samples from the wells, water was drawn using a
sterilized bailer and poured into the bottles. A lid was
used to immediately cover the bottles and appropriately
labeled with the sample code and date of sampling.
Sample preservation technique
In order to reduce errors and the possibility of unreliable
results as a result of contamination, a trip blank that was
prepared with distilled water was added to the samples
and properly labeled. These were done to assess the
extent of the contamination during the collection of
samples at the field. The collected samples in the field
and trip blanks were kept in ice chest at 4 OC and were
immediately transported to the Soil Testing Laboratory
of Soil Research Institute, Kwadaso Kumasi for
immediate analysis.
Analysis of water samples
Temperature, Total Dissolved Solids, pH, turbidity and
Electrical
Conductivity
were
measured
using
appropriate water quality measuring instruments. The
concentration of trace metals (Cd, Fe, Pb, Mn, Cu, As,
and Zn) were determined using Spectra AA220 Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) (Cobbina
et al.,
2015), 50 ml of the water samples was filled into 100 ml
volumetric flask. 30 ml concentrated HNO3 was added
and 20 ml concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl) was
added in a digestion tube, heated in digestion block at
105 degree Celsius for 30 minutes (Alloway, 2012). The
solution was cooled, 5 ml of Kl were added for 1 hour,
and a minimum amount of Ascorbic acid powder was
added to discharge any yellow colour of iodine. Filled
into a 50 ml volumetric flask and made to the mark with
distilled water. They were then analysed for their metal
levels, Arsenic were determined using hydride
generation AAS. Triplicate analyses of samples, blanks
and standards were done. Samples that were not
analysed immediately were stored in a fridge (Alloway,
2012). Reliability of the results was checked using
individual elemental standards (certified reference
materials, CRMs) by the IRMM (Joint Research Centre
European Commission) for a standard Reliability of
chemical analysis. Standards solutions (5, 10 and 15
mg/L) were prepared by dilution of 1000 mg/L stock
solutions. Approximately 30 ml of each standard was
taken through the treatment processes and their
concentrations were measured.
Statistical Analysis
The data on were summarized according to town of
sample. Means and standard deviations were estimated
using SPSS Version 25. The mean concentration for each
site was then compared to the WHO and EPA-Gh
guideline values for water quality. Also, One-Way
ANOVA was used to explore differences in mean
concentrations of the physicochemical properties
among the five towns. Tukey Post-Hoc analyses were
performed in cases where significant differences were
found among towns in the ANOVA test. Statistical
analyses were done at the 0.05 % level of significance.
RESULTS
Properties of Groundwater in the Study Areas
Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in
Abenabena
The levels of trace metals in ground water from the
various sampling sites have been presented in Table 2.
The range of the levels of zinc (0.038-0.042 mg/L),
copper (0.114-0.236 mg/L), manganese (0.086-0.17
mg/L), and lead (0.002-0.003 mg/L) were all below the
WHO/EPA guideline values. The levels of arsenic (0.64-
1.31 mg/L) and cadmium (0.124-0.144 mg/L) were
above the WHO and EPA acceptable limits for potable
water. However, lead levels in samples from three sites
(Ab-w1, Ab-w2 and Ab-site) were above the EPA-Gh
guideline value of 0.3 mg/L.
Table 2: Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Abenabena
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Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Ab-b1
Ab-b2
Ab-w1
Ab-w2
Ab-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
Zinc (mg/L)
0.038
0.04
0.042
0.04
0.041
N.A
5
Arsenic (mg/L)
0.64
0.79
1.31
1.24
1.26
0.01
0.01
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.127
0.124
0.141
0.14
0.144
0.003
0.1
Copper (mg/L)
0.117
0.114
0.221
0.22
0.236
2
5
Iron (mg/L)
0.159
0.16
0.466
0.456
0.463
N.A
0.3
Manganese (mg/L)
0.17
0.16
0.086
0.092
0.101
0.4
N.A
Lead (mg/L)
0.003
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.01
0.1
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Abenabena
The results of the physicochemical properties of groundwater in Abenabena have been presented in Table 3. All the
samples were slightly acidic with pH values ranging from 5.8 to 6.04. All the pH values of the samples were outside
of the WHO range of 6.6-8.5 while the pH values from Ab-b1 (5.8), Ab-b2 (5.82) and Ab-w2 (5.97) were outside of
the EPA-Gh range of 6-9. The mean Turbidity level across samples was 7.476 NTU which is above the WHO/EPA
guideline value of 5 NTU. A close inspection of Table 3 reveals that Turbidity of two samples (Ab-w1 and Ab-w2)
were above the WHO/EPA guideline values. Also, the levels of T.S.S (4.0-12.1 mg/L), E.C (240-
276 μS/cm), and T.D.S
(148-170 mg/L) from all the samples were below the WHO/EPA guideline values. However, the levels of D.O (5.52-
5.91 mg/L) from all the samples were above the WHO/EPA guideline values.
Table 3: Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Abenabena
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Ab-b1
Ab-b2
Ab-w1
Ab-w2
Ab-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
pH
5.8
5.82
6
5.97
6.04
6.5-8.5
6-9
Turbidity (NTU)
2.64
2.63
15.3
15.42
1.39
5
5
T.S.S (mg/L)
4
4
11
12.01
12.11
50
50
E.C (μS/cm)
240
243
270
275
276
1,500
1,500
D.O (mg/L)
5.58
5.52
5.81
5.84
5.91
5
N.A
T.D.S (mg/L)
149
148
167
168
170
1000
1,000
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Nkonya
The levels of trace metals in groundwater samples collected from Nkonya have been presented in Table 4. In terms
of the trace metals, the levels of Zn (0.053-0.056 mg/L), Cu (0.22-0.24 mg/L), Mn (0.004-0.006 mg/L), and Pb (0.001-
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0.004 mg/L) were all below the WHO and EPA-Gh limits for drinking water. However, the levels of As (0.66-1.59
mg/L) and Cd (0.107-0.191 mg/L) were all above the WHO and EPA-Gh limits for drinking water. Also, the levels of
Fe in samples from Nk-w1 (0.301 mg/L), Nk-w2 (0.303 mg/L), and Nk-site (0.304 mg/L) were marginally above the
EPA-Gh limit for drinking water.
Table 4: Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Nkonya
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Nk-b1
Nk-b2
Nk-w1
Nk-w2
Nk-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
Zinc (mg/L)
0.053
0.054
0.055
0.055
0.056
N.A
5
Arsenic (mg/L)
1.56
1.59
0.66
0.66
0.67
0.01
0.01
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.191
0.189
0.107
0.109
0.111
0.003
0.1
Copper (mg/L)
0.22
0.22
0.234
0.24
0.236
2
5
Iron (mg/L)
0.148
0.15
0.301
0.303
0.304
N.A
0.3
Manganese (mg/L)
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.4
N.A
Lead (mg/L)
0.003
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.01
0.1
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Nkonya
The results of the physicochemical properties of groundwater in Nkonya have been presented in Table 5. All the
water samples from Nkonya were acidic and outside the WHO/EPA-Gh range for portable water. The pH of samples
from the sites was in the range of 4.0 to 4.23 and a mean pH of 4.126 was recorded. Also, the level of D.O from the
samples ranged from 6.6 to 8.5 mg/L and were above the WHO guideline value of 5 mg/L. Additionally, the turbidity
of samples from Nk-w1 (25.9 NTU), Nk-w2 (25.91 NTU), and Nk-site (25.89 NTU) were above the WHO/EP-Gh
guideline values. However, the levels of T.S.S (0-27 mg/L), Ec (50-
173 μS/cm), and T.D.S (31
-106 mg/L) were all
below the WHO/EPA-Gh guideline values.
Table 5: Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Nkonya
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Nk-b1
Nk-b2
Nk-w1
Nk-w2
Nk-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
pH
4
4
4.2
4.2
4.23
6.5-8.5
6-9
Turbidity (NTU)
0.95
0.95
25.9
25.91
25.89
5
5
T.S.S (mg/L)
0
0
26
26
27
50
50
E.C (μS/cm)
50
51
170
173
171
1,500
1,500
D.O (mg/L)
8.48
8.5
6.6
6.6
6.63
5
N.A
T.D.S (mg/L)
31
32
105
104
106
1000
1,000
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Ayanfuri
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The levels of trace metals in groundwater samples from Ayanfuri have been summarized in Table 6. The results
reveal that the levels of As (0.78-0.79 mg/L) and Cd (0.111-0.172 mg/L) were above the WHO/EPA-Gh limits for
portable water. However, the levels of Zn (0.087-0.089 mg/L), Cu (0.21-0.219 mg/L), Fe (0.148-0.161 mg/L), Mn
(0.005-0.009 mg/L), and Pb (0.002-0.003 mg/L) from all the sites were below the WHO/EPA-Gh limits.
Table 6: Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Ayanfuri
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Ay-b1
Ay-b2 Ay-w1
Ay-w2
Ay-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
Zinc (mg/L)
0.087
0.087
0.087
0.087
0.089
N.A
5
Arsenic (mg/L)
0.78
0.78
0.78
0.78
0.79
0.01
0.01
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.131
0.134
0.164
0.17
0.172
0.003
0.1
Copper (mg/L)
0.21
0.214
0.219
0.214
0.216
2
5
Iron (mg/L)
0.148
0.157
0.149
0.152
0.161
N.A
0.3
Manganese (mg/L)
0.005
0.006
0.008
0.007
0.009
0.4
N.A
Lead (mg/L)
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.01
0.1
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Ayanfuri
The results of the physicochemical properties of groundwater in Ayanfuri have been presented in Table 7. The
results revealed that the pH of the samples from all the sites were slightly acidic and fall outside the WHO/EPA-Gh
range. The pH ranged from 5.17 to 5.42 and the mean pH was 5.304. Also, the levels of D.O from all the sites ranged
from 8.67 to 9.24 and were above the WHO guideline value. However, the levels of turbidity (0.57-0.64 NTU), T.S.S
(5-
5.35 mg/L), Ec (130 to 142 μS/cm), and T.D.S (80
-89 mg/L) were within the WHO/EP-Gh limits for portable water.
Table 7: Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Ayanfuri
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Ay-b1
Ay-b2 Ay-w1
Ay-w2
Ay-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
pH
5.17
5.2
5.34
5.42
5.39
6.5-8.5
6-9
Turbidity (NTU)
0.6
0.59
0.64
0.57
0.59
5
5
T.S.S (mg/L)
5.2
5.35
5.25
5
5.3
50
50
E.C (μS/cm)
132
130
138
139
142
1,500
1,500
D.O (mg/L)
8.76
8.67
8.89
9.24
9.18
5
N.A
T.D.S (mg/L)
80
81
84
87
89
1000
1,000
a
(W.H.O, 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).
Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Gyamang
The levels of trace metals in groundwater samples from Gyamang have been presented in Table 8. The levels of Cd
(0.18-0.186 mg/L) from all the sites are above the WHO/EPA-Gh guideline values for portable water. Also, the levels
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of Fe from Gy-w1 (0.301 mgl) and Gy-site (0.31 mg/L) are marginally above the EPA-Gh acceptable limit for portable
water. However, the levels of Zn (3-3.23 mg/L), As (0.001-0.001 mg/L), Cu (0.002-0.008 mg/L), Mn (0.023-0.041
mg/L), and Pb (0.002-0.004 mg/L) were within the WHO/EPA-Gh acceptable limits for portable water.
Table 8: Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Gyamang
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Gy-b1
Gy-b2
Gy-w1
Gy-w2
Gy-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
Zinc (mg/L)
3.231
3.119
2.999
2.999
3.121
N.A
5
Arsenic (mg/L)
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.01
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.184
0.181
0.18
0.182
0.186
0.003
0.1
Copper (mg/L)
0.002
0.002
0.005
0.006
0.008
2
5
Iron (mg/L)
0.289
0.292
0.301
0.298
0.31
N.A
0.3
Manganese (mg/L)
0.023
0.025
0.037
0.041
0.039
0.4
N.A
Lead (mg/L)
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.01
0.1
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Gyamang
The results of the physicochemical properties of groundwater in Gyamang have been presented in Table 9. The pHs
of the water samples ranged from 5.1 to 5.14 and were outside of the WHO/EPA-Gh acceptable range for drinking
water. Also, the levels of D.O in all the samples ranged from 8.5 to 8.53 mg/L and were above the WHO guideline
value for portable water. However, the turbidity (0.43-0.46 NTU), T.S.S (2-2.05 mg/L), EC (57.6-
58 μS/cm), and
T.D.S (28.1-28.3 mg/L) were within the WHO/EPA-Gh guideline values for portable water.
Table 9: Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Gyamang
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Gy-b1
Gy-b2
Gy-w1
Gy-w2
Gy-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
pH
5.1
5.12
5.1
5.14
5.11
6.5-8.5
6-9
Turbidity (NTU)
0.44
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
5
5
T.S.S (mg/L)
2
2
2.05
2.03
2.01
50
50
E.C (μS/cm)
57.6
57.8
57.79
58
57.65
1,500
1,500
D.O (mg/L)
8.51
8.51
8.52
8.5
8.53
5
N.A
T.D.S (mg/L)
28.1
28.3
28.2
28.1
28.15
1000
1,000
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Forbinso
The levels of trace metals in groundwater samples from Forbinso have been presented in Table 10. the results show
that the levels of Cd from all the sites ranged from 0.155 to 0.272 mg/L and were above the WHO/EPA-Gh limits
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for portable water. Also, the levels of Fe at Fb-w1 (0.364 mg/L), Fb-w2 (0.361 mg/L), and Fb-site (0.375 mg/L) were
above the guideline value of EPA-Gh. However, the levels of Zn (3.45-4 mg/L), As (0-0.001 mg/L), Cu (0.003-0.006
mg/L), Mn (0.019-0.039 mg/L), and Pb (0.002-0.003 mg/L) were within the WHO/EPA-Gh acceptable limits for
portable water.
Table 10: Concentration of Trace Metals in Groundwater in Forbinso
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Fb-b1
Fb-b2
Fb-w1
Fb-w2
Fb-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
Zinc (mg/L)
3.499
3.546
3.448
3.848
3.999
N.A
5
Arsenic (mg/L)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.001
0.01
0.01
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.155
0.163
0.258
0.267
0.272
0.003
0.1
Copper (mg/L)
0.003
0.003
0.005
0.005
0.006
2
5
Iron (mg/L)
0.138
0.142
0.364
0.361
0.375
N.A
0.3
Manganese (mg/L)
0.019
0.024
0.035
0.032
0.039
0.4
N.A
Lead (mg/L)
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.01
0.1
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Forbinso
The results of the physicochemical properties of groundwater in Abenabena have been presented in Table 11. The
samples from all the sites were slightly acidic with pH values ranging from 5.18 to 5.2. These values were outside
of the WHO/EPA-Gh range of pH for portable water. Also, the levels of D.O from all the sites ranged from 8.48 to
8.5 mg/L and were above the WHO guideline value for portable water. However, the turbidity (0.98-1 NTU), T.S.S
(4-4 mg/L), EC (38.6-
38.8 μS/cm), T.D.S (16.4 to 19.4 mg/L) were within the WHO/EPA
-Gh limits for portable water.
Table 11: Physicochemical Properties of Groundwater in Forbinso
Site Code
Guideline Values
Parameters
Fb-b1
Fb-b2
Fb-w1
Fb-w2
Fb-site
WHO
a
EPA
b
pH
5.18
5.2
5.19
5.18
5.19
6.5-8.5
6-9
Turbidity (NTU)
0.98
1
0.99
0.98
0.98
5
5
T.S.S (mg/L)
4
4
4
4
4
50
50
E.C (μS/cm)
38.6
38.8
38.8
38.6
38.7
1,500
1,500
D.O (mg/L)
8.5
8.49
8.49
8.48
8.5
5
N.A
T.D.S (mg/L)
19.34
19.38
19.35
19.36
16.38
1000
1,000
a
(WHO 2017);
b
(EPA-Gh, Environmental Protection Agency).
Comparisons of the Characteristics of Groundwater among the five Towns
The results of the One-Way ANOVA test have been presented on Table 12. Also, the descriptive results of the One-
Way ANOVA and the Tukey Post Hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix A. The ANOVA comparisons on As and
T.S.S returned undefined results since the minimum levels and standard deviations of As and T.S.S at Forbinso and
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Nkonya respectively were zero (0). Also, there was no evidence of a statistically significant difference in the mean
Pb levels among the five towns (p = 0.708). However, there were statistically significant differences in the mean
levels of all the remaining characteristics of groundwater among the five towns (p < 0.001). The descriptive results
and the Post Hoc test showed that the mean levels of Zn at Gyamang and Forbinso were significantly higher than
the mean levels in the remaining three towns (p < 0.001). Also, the mean level of Cd was significantly higher at
Forbinso than Abenabena (p < 0.01), Nkonya (p < 0.05) and Ayanfuri (p < 0.05). Additionally, the mean levels of Cu
at Abenabena, Nkonya and Ayanfuri were significantly higher than at Gyamang and Forbinso (p < 0.001). Moreover,
the differences found in Fe levels among the towns was as a result of the difference between Abenabena (0.3408
mg/L) and Ayanfuri (0.1534 mg/L) with p = 0.053. The mean level of Mn was found to be significantly higher at
Abenabena than the remaining four towns (p < 0.001). The mean pH level at Nkonya was found to be significantly
lower than those of all the other towns (p < 0.001). Also, the mean turbidity at Nkonya was found to be significantly
higher than Ayanfuri, Gyamang and Forbinso (p<0.05). The mean level of E.C was found to be significantly higher at
Abenabena than the remainder of the towns (p < 0.001). Additionally, mean E.C levels at Nkonya and Ayanfuri were
found to be significantly higher than at Gyamang and Forbinso. The mean levels of D.O at Ayanfuri, Gyamang and
Forbinso were found to be significantly higher than at Abenabena and Nkonya. The T.D.S at Abenabena was
significantly higher than in the remaining four towns (p < 0.001).
Table 4.12 One-Way ANOVA of the Properties of Groundwater in the Five
Communities
Parameters
F
df1
df2
P
Zinc (mg/L)
2207.612
4
9.45
< .001
Arsenic (mg/L)
NaN
4
NaN
NaN
Cadmium (mg/L)
28.353
4
8.3
< .001
Copper (mg/L)
4172.436
4
9.09
< .001
Iron (mg/L)
219.951
4
8.97
< .001
Manganese (mg/L)
29.896
4
8.64
< .001
Lead (mg/L)
0.544
4
9.79
0.708
pH
149.17
4
8.74
< .001
Turbidity (NTU)
1486.694
4
9.24
< .001
T.S.S (mg/L)
NaN
4
NaN
NaN
E.C (μS/cm)
11296.8
4
8.92
< .001
D.O (mg/L)
273.511
4
9.03
< .001
T.D.S (mg/L)
411.605
4
8.02
< .001
NaN = Not a number (meaning an undefined result was obtained).
Water Quality Index (WQI) of Ground Water in the Study Areas
The results of the WQI estimation and sample classification have been presented in Table 13. From the results, the
estimated WQI ranged from 53.3 to 127.7. Also, the water from the various samples was put under two
classifications; good water and poor water. The samples from 22 out of the 25 samples (thus 88 % of the samples)
were classified as good water based on their WQI estimates. However, samples from Nk-w1 (127.4), Nk-w2 (127.4)
and Nk-site-w (127.7) were classified as poor water based on their WQI estimates. The average WQI estimate across
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all samples was also classified as good water.
Table 13: Water Quality Index (WQI) and Classification
Site
WQI
Classification
Site
WQI
Classification
Ab-b1
53.6
Good water
Ay-w2
63.0
Good water
Ab-b2
53.3
Good water
Ay-site-w
62.8
Good water
Ab-w1
95.1
Good water
Gy-b1
55.8
Good water
Ab-w2
95.7
Good water
Gy-b2
55.9
Good water
Ab-site-w
53.8
Good water
Gy-w1
55.9
Good water
Nk-b1
54.8
Good water
Gy-w2
55.8
Good water
Nk-b2
54.9
Good water
Gy-site-w
55.9
Good water
Nk-w1
127.4
Poor water
Fb-b1
57.4
Good water
Nk-w2
127.4
Poor water
Fb-b2
57.4
Good water
Nk-site-w
127.7
Poor water
Fb-w1
57.4
Good water
Ay-b1
59.9
Good water
Fb-w2
57.2
Good water
Ay-b2
59.5
Good water
Fb-sit-w
57.3
Good water
AY-b1
61.2
Good water
DISCUSSION
The results on the levels of trace metals in groundwater
in the study communities varied from town to town for
the various metals. In most cases the concentrations of
the trace metals were within WHO and EPA Ghana
guideline limits for portable water. The range of levels of
zinc (0.038 to 3.999 mg/L), copper (0.002 to 0.24 mg/L),
manganese (0.004 to 0.17 mg/L), and lead (0.001 to
0.004 mg/L) were all below WHO and EPA Ghana the
acceptable limits for drinking water. This situation is
desirable given the potential health risks of exposure to
these trace metals. For instance exposure to high levels
of copper could lead to damage to essential div organs
such as the kidneys and liver (Yolcubal
et al.,
2016). Also,
exposure to lead among children is associated with
cognitive
development problems such as learning
disability (Cobbina
et al.,
2015). The study found that
levels of arsenic and iron from some sites were above
WHO/EPA Ghana guideline values for portable water.
The presence of high levels of arsenic in some sites could
be due to the incessant use of arsenic-containing
substances in the processing of ore (Kwesi
et al.,
2023;
Bempah
et al.,
2016). Long term exposure to arsenic
could cause skin disorders such as skin cancer, and short
term effects are edema, gastrointestinal and upper
respiratory symptoms (Hadzi
et al.,
2018). The high
presence of iron in groundwater from some of the sites
could be due to weathering of the rock systems in the
study area, discharge of mining waste and acid mine
drainage. These sources of iron have been cited in the
literature as common sources of iron in groundwater,
especially in mining areas (Hirwa
et al.,
2019; Adimalla
et al.,
2018; Alshikh, 2011). Also, the study found that
the levels of cadmium exceeded WHO (0.003) and EPA
(0.1) Ghana guideline values for potable water in all
samples. The high levels of cadmium in groundwater in
the study area is worrying and requires urgent attention
because the intake of high levels of cadmium could
result in toxicity to the kidney and skeletal system and
may be associated with an increased risk of
hypertension and cardiovascular disease (Hamid
et al.,
2019). On the physicochemical properties of
groundwater in the study area, it was found that that the
T.S.S ranged from 0 27 mg/L, E.C ranged from 38.6 276
μS/cm, and T.D.S ranged from 16.38 170 mg/L. The
levels of all these parameters were within WHO/EPA
Ghana acceptable limits for potable water. The generally
low levels of these parameters are possible indication of
the occurrence of young or recharging groundwater
since high values of T.S.S, EC and TDS are mostly
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associated with old or discharging groundwater (Anim-
Gyampo
et al.,
2018). The possibility of the occurrence
of adverse health effects on humans are therefore
unexpected (Nishtha, 2012). The pH of all samples was
slightly acidic ranging from 4.0 to 6.0 and in most cases
fell outside of WHO and EPA Ghana guideline values for
potable water. Lower values in pH are indicative of high
acidity, which can be caused by the deposition of acid
forming substances in precipitation. A high organic
content will tend to decrease the pH because of the
carbonate chemistry. As microorganisms break down
organic material, the by product will be CO2 that will
dissolve and equilibrate with the soil forming carbonic
acid (H2CO3) (Howladar
et al.,
2017). Other organic
acids such as humic and fluvic acids can also result from
organic decomposition (Alshikh, 2011). The levels of
turbidity ranged from 0.43 to 25.91 NTU. Turbidity levels
exceeded the maximum allowable limits for portable
water in five samples (Ab-w1, Ab-w2, NK-w1, Nk-w2,
and Nk-site). Turbidity is a measure of the degree to
which the water loses its transparency due to the
presence of suspended particulates. The more total
suspended solids in the water, the murkier it seems and
the higher the turbidity. Turbidity is considered as a
good measure of the quality of water. Groundwater
from Ab-w1, Ab-w2, NK-w1, Nk-w2, and Nk-site may
present significant health implications for the health of
people who use them for domestic activities since
turbidity levels above 5 NTU is not safe for consumption
(WHO, 2017). The levels of dissolved oxygen were high
in all samples, ranging from 5.52 to 9.24 mg/L. A high
dissolved oxygen (DO) level in a ground water source is
good because it makes drinking water taste better
(Mazhar & Ahmad, 2020). However, high DO levels
speed up corrosion in water storage containers and
pipes (Saleem
et al.,
2016). For this reason, it is essential
to use water with the least possible amount of dissolved
oxygen. The types of groundwater samples based on the
WQI estimations from the study area were good and
poor water with majority of them being good water (88
%). Only water from Nk-w1, Nk-w2 and Nk-site were
classified poor water. The poor nature of water from the
above sites, all in Nkonya, could be due to the high
turbidity levels in groundwater in those areas. The
turbidity of samples from Nk-w1 (25.9 NTU), Nk-w2
(25.91 NTU), and Nk-site (25.89 NTU) were above the
WHO/EP-Gh guideline values. Such level of turbidity is a
major public health concern which requires urgent
remediation to prevent any possible adverse health
effects from the use of groundwater for domestic
activities. Mining activities in the study area could be a
major cause of this problem since the changes in water
quality resulting from mining activities include increase
of water turbidity, concentrations of major ions and
trace elements.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study generally revealed that acceptable levels of
trace metals such as zinc, copper, manganese, and lead
existed in the groundwater in the study area. However,
there was high arsenic, iron and cadmium pollution in
the study area which requires urgent attention due to
the potential adverse human health effects associated
with exposure to high levels of these metals. The study
also revealed that the physicochemical properties of
groundwater from the study area were within
acceptable limits for potable water with the exception
of pH and turbidity. Groundwater samples were very
acidic in some cases and in most cases, slightly acidic yet
outside the recommended range of the WHO/EPA
Ghana for potable water. There was high turbidity in
some groundwater samples in the study area making
these groundwater sources unhealthy for domestic
consumption. The majority of groundwater sources in
the study were found to be good for domestic
consumption. However, three of the five samples from
Nkonya (Nk-w1, Nk-w2 and Nk-site) were poor for
domestic consumption due to high WQI values that are
suggestive of high levels of pollution giving these
samples a poor classification. The classification of these
water sources was mainly attributed to the high levels of
turbidity in these samples. There is a strong perception
among the community members that odour and salty
taste are often observed in groundwater in the area
despite reporting that they only used groundwater for
domestic activities sometimes. The concern of saltiness
was attributed to high levels of sodium from natural and
anthropogenic activities (e.g., erosion of salt deposits).
Also, concerns of odour were attributed to the presence
of hydrogen sulfide stemming from the activities of iron
and sulfur bacteria. While these concerns make
groundwater unpalatable, most community members
rated the quality of groundwater as acceptable. There is
the need for EPA Ghana to control the levels of arsenic,
iron and cadmium levels in groundwater in the study
area. Anthropogenic activities known in the literature to
contribute to groundwater pollution such as illegal
uncontrolled mining should be tackled with the
necessary urgency to limit further pollution of
groundwater sources.
Acknowledgements
Our sincere acknowledgement to Hon. Kennedy Ohene
Agyapong for his motivation and support towards the
realisation of this research.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
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There is no conflict of interest with respect to the
research, authorship and publication of this article
Availability of supporting data
Data will be provided upon request
Funding
There was no financial support for the research
authorship and publication of this article.
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