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THE HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPEDITIONS CONDUCTED
IN SAMARKAND
Tursunov Ulug‘bek Ismoil o‘g‘li
Master’s student at the Department of Archaeology Samarkand State University
Annotatsiya:
Samarqand
O’zbekiston hududidagi eng qadimiy
shaharlardan biri bo’lib, o’zining boy tarixiga egadir. Bu hududni arxeologik
jihatdan o’rganish ishlari, va olib borilgan tadqiqotlarning natijalari ushbu
maqolada muhokama qilinadi.
Kalit soʻzlar:
Afrosiyob,
N.V. Xanikov, V.V. Krestovskiy, shurf, “qazish”
ishlari, Maroqand, mudofa devoir.
Abstract:
Samarkand is one of the most ancient cities in Uzbekistan, with
a rich history. The archaeological study of this area and the results of the research
are discussed in this article.
Keywords:
Afrosiyob, N.V. Khanikov, V.V. Krestovsky, shurf,
"excavation" works, Marokand, defense duty.
For the past 150 years, Samarkand has attracted the attention of
archaeologists, historians, orientalists, and other enthusiasts. It is worth noting that
the study of the ancient history and culture of Sogdiana began with Russian scholars.
The significant role of Samarkand in the history of Central Asia led to the early
initiation of research activities in the region compared to other areas.
The history of the study of Samarkand and Samarkand Sogdiana can be divided into
three periods. Initially, Russian scholars, military personnel, and orientalists began
their work by studying Afrasiab and its surroundings. In 1841, N.V. Kharikov, who
visited the Bukhara Khanate, provided the topographic map of Samarkand and a
classification of Afrasiab.
1
After Samarkand was incorporated into the Turkestan
General Governorship, archaeological research on Afrasiab began. Unfortunately,
the first excavations carried out by military amateurs were more focused on the
search for treasures. The excavations were conducted by digging deep pits, as at that
time, archaeological excavation methods had not yet been developed
2
.
1
Абдураззак Самаркандий “Матлаи саъдайн ва мажмаи бахрайн”. Форс тожик тилидан А. Ўринбоев
таржимаси. Тошкент.: ФАН, 1969. 462 б.
2
Соколовская Л.Ф. Некоторые итоги изучении керамики Афрасиаба XII веке
РУз. Самарканд. 1993. С. 46-47.
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Later, V.V. Krestovskiy, through excavations at Afrasiab, identified the
presence of Hellenistic layers at the site. However, the methods of that time did not
meet the archaeological excavation standards.
In 1883, the famous Orientalist N.I. Veselovskiy conducted work at Afrasiab.
However, the lack of archaeological experience affected the results of his research.
The work he conducted can be explained by one piece of evidence: during his four-
month fieldwork, Veselovskiy dug small trenches at 109 points of Afrasiab. This
method was inconsistent with the excavation techniques required for large city ruins.
Nonetheless, Veselovskiy produced an accurate topographical map of Afrasiab,
which remains significant to this day.
In 1894-1895, French archaeologist Shaffanjon carried out “excavations” at
Afrasiab. Unfortunately, his methods were destructive, as he blew up cultural layers
and then collected the materials. The materials he collected are currently housed in
the Gime Museum in Paris. In the following years, S.M. Gorshenina took up the
study of Samarkand and its surroundings.
The work of V.L. Vyatkin in the study of Samarkand and its surroundings
should be especially noted. Vyatkin dated Samarkand to the 4th century BC and
refuted the claim that it was referred to as Maracanda in ancient sources.
Thus, until the 1930s, the study of Afrasiab by Russian scholars was based on
primitive methods, consisting mainly of initial research.
The second period of the study of Samarkand and its surroundings spans the
1930s to the late 1960s, and it can be divided into two stages. During the first stage
of this period, the quality of archaeological research greatly improved. Excavations
were conducted not only at Afrasiab but also in surrounding areas. During this time,
G.V. Grigoryev’s research in studying the ancient and medieval cultures of the area
was highly significant. In the 1930s-1940s, he carefully excavated and
stratigraphically analyzed the Toli Barzu site located southeast of Samarkand. Many
of his scientific works remain relevant today. Grigoryev's work was the first
scientifically methodical excavation in Samarkand. He was the first to highlight that
the Dargom Canal had been manually dug and proved that natural streambeds were
sometimes used during its construction.
In the second stage of this period, the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR
opened a base in Samarkand, led by A.I. Terenojkin. He soon developed the initial
stratigraphy of Afrasiab's ancient culture by cleaning up the old excavations, a
classification that later led to significant debates. The mistakes and shortcomings
made during that time were later corrected by Terenojkin himself. His main
contribution was the identification of cultural blocks in Afrasiab. A.I. Terenojkin
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was able to separate the columns of unmixing complexes in a stratigraphic context,
and these columns continue to be used in the dating of Afrasiab to this day.
3
The complexes found in the lowest layers of Afrasiab are designated as the
Afrasiab 1 stage, corresponding to the Achaemenid period (6th-4th centuries BCE).
The Afrasiab 2 and 3 stages are associated with the "Saka Hellenistic" periods (4th-
2nd centuries BCE), while the Afrasiab 4 stage corresponds to the Kanguy Yuechji
period.
In 1958, the third period of Samarkand archaeology began, which is also
divided into two stages. The first stage is marked by the declaration of Afrasiab as
an open-air museum by the state and the organization of an archaeological
expedition by the Institute of Archaeology and History of the Academy of Sciences
of the Uzbek SSR. This expedition was led by V.A. Shishkin. After his death in
1966, the expedition was led by Ya.G. Ghulomov. Over the years, various
archaeologists, including T.R. Azamkhodjayev, D.I. Varkhotova, V.D. Zhukov,
S.K. Kabanov, Ya.K. Krikis, Yu.F. Buryakov, O.V. Obelchenko, G.V. Shishkina,
and L.G. Bruchenkova, participated in the excavation works.
The main focus of the research was on the stratigraphy and topography of
Afrasiab. Notable findings include the discovery of complexes from the 6th-5th
centuries BCE during the excavations around Shakhi Zinda, led by N.B. Nemseva.
Additionally, M.I. Filanovich's excavations in the northern part of the large pool in
the northwest of Afrasiab revealed traces of settlement dating back to the 7th century
BCE. This conclusion was later clarified through further cleaning works.
G.V. Shishkina and S.K. Kabanov achieved significant success in the study of
the ancient layers of Afrasiab. During these years, A.R. Mukhammadjonov studied
the water supply and irrigation systems of Samarkand and the surrounding region
(1969, pp. 204-311).
While studying the nomadic fortresses, O.V. Obelchenko discovered a Bronze
Age tomb in the Urgut district (Askarov A.A., 1969), which proved to be significant
in studying the historical development of the Bronze Age in Sogdiana. Other
important findings include the Siyobcha tomb in the Afrasiab region and the Chakka
tomb found on the left bank of the Zarafshan River (Avanesova N.A., 1991). N.A.
Avanesova also conducted research on the Tokay village in 1995.
Not all of the above research was successful. For example, M.K. Pachos,
while studying the defensive walls of Afrasiab, incorrectly suggested that
Samarkand was founded in the 4th century BCE.
3
Бартольд В.В. Туркестан в эпоху монгольского нашествия. Соч. т. 1. М.: 1963. С. 45-597.
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From 1971-1979, the Afrasiab expedition was led by Sh.S. Toshkhodzhayev,
and from 1979-1987, G.V. Shishkina took over. This period is characterized by the
expansion of archaeological research covering all historical periods at Afrasiab.
Specialists from various fields were involved in the study of the monument. Over
the years, archaeologists such as I. Akhrorov, A.A. Anarboyev, X.G.
Okhunboboyev, L.I. Albaum, L.G. Brusenko, Yu.F. Buryakov, E.Yu. Yurakova,
O.N. Invatkina, I.D. Ivaniskiy, S.K. Kabanov, T.I. Lebedova, N. Rakhimobayeva,
Sh. Shorakhimov, M.K. Pachos, M.I. Filanovich, and others participated in the work.
The restoration and conservation of wall paintings, defensive structures,
pottery, and glass vessels found at Afrasiab were handled by a group of chemical
technologists led by A.A. Abdurozzokov.
In 1998, with the establishment of the Uzbek-French Expedition (O'FAE), the
second stage of the third period of research began. Since 1989, French scholars also
joined the study of Afrasiab. The collaboration between Uzbek and French
archaeologists elevated the research of Afrasiab to a new qualitative level.
The French side of the expedition was led by academician Paul Bernard, with
other participants including the member of the Academy of Linguistics and Fine
Arts, François Grenet, and scientists Claude Rappin, Bertil Lione, geographer Pierre
Jantel, and later scientific staff like Lorient Sev Martinez. From the Uzbek side,
M.H. Isomiddinov (expedition associate), and scientific staff H.G. Okhunboboyev,
N. Rakhimbobayeva, L.F. Sokolovskaya, and I.D. Ivaniskiy took part
4
.
The involvement of O.N. Inavatkina, a staff member of the Museum of
Oriental Art in Moscow, in the expedition work is also noteworthy. She defended
her dissertation on "The Palace in the Structure of Ancient Samarkand in the 6th
century BCE and the 5th century CE" (1995, p. 135). In addition, doctoral candidate
Yu. Karyev and architect Ye. Kurtkin also participated in the Afrasiab expedition.
From the above, it is clear that the primary focus of research into the history of
Samarkand has been Afrasiab. One of the most challenging aspects of studying this
site is its multi-layered structure. In studying the ancient layers, the medieval pit
graves, which were dug into the older layers, posed a significant problem, as they
disturbed the ancient stratigraphy. However, the best-preserved structures from the
ancient periods are the defensive walls of Afrasiab, as they were used during the
medieval period as well. This indicates that the ancient defensive walls were
constructed with great durability and placed on natural hilltops and the steep banks
of the Siyob River, which made them suitable for use in later historical periods.
4
Анарбаев А.А. Благоустройства средневекового города Средней Азии. Под редакцией А.М. Белиницкого.
Ташкент. ФАН. 1981, с. 119.
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Specifically, the defensive walls in the northeastern part of Afrasiab were
constructed along the steepest banks of the Siyob River, while those in the
southwestern part were built at the highest points of the ravines.
Parallel excavations in other parts of Afrasiab have led to new factual
evidence about the urbanization processes and the development of material culture
from ancient times through the Mongol invasion. As a result, several issues have
been clarified:
Chronology of Afrasiab: It is now widely accepted by experts that Afrasiab,
one of the largest cities in Central Asia, dates to the 6th–4th centuries BCE,
corresponding to the period when much of Central Asia was part of the Achaemenid
Empire.
Historical and Archaeological Chronology: A historical and archaeological
periodization from the middle of the 1st millennium BCE to the Mongol invasion
has been established for Afrasiab.
Ancient City Planning: The city's major structural elements, including its
gates, main roads, and irrigation channels, have been studied.
Defensive Structures: Significant attention has been given to studying
Afrasiab's defensive structures. As a result, the main stages in the development of
the city's defensive walls, a key element of ancient urban planning, have been
identified.
However, some areas of Samarkand and Sogdiana's history remain
underexplored. For example, the study of the ancient irrigation system and the
general development of the middle Zarafshan Valley has not been fully addressed.
Among the key water sources irrigating the upper and middle reaches of the
Zarafshan River are the Dargom, Bulungur, Poyariq, Yangiariq, Eski Angor, and
Siyob canals. Researchers have focused on the origins of certain canals like Dargom
and Eski Angor, but other canals have remained largely unstudied. These canals are
crucial for understanding the population density and agricultural capacity of the area
during that time.
Irrigation has always been a vital factor in agriculture and human activity in
Central Asia. The cultural genesis of Samarkand and Sogdiana from ancient times
through the end of the classical period remains underdeveloped in research.
Furthermore, the lack of comprehensive studies on the pottery from Samarkand and
Sogdiana hinders the identification of the cultural roots and distinct characteristics
of the region’s material culture.
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LIST OF USED LITERATURES
1.
Абдураззак Самаркандий “Матлаи саъдайн ва мажмаи бахрайн”.
Форс тожик тилидан А. Ўринбоев таржимаси. Тошкент.: ФАН, 1969.
2.
Аванесова Н.А. Культура пастушских племен эпохи бронзқ
Азиатской части СССР (по металлическим изделиям). Ташкент. ФАН. 1991
3.
Анарбаев А.А. Благоустройства средневекового города Средней
Азии. Под редакцией А.М. Белиницкого. Ташкент. ФАН. 1981
4.
Аскаров А.А., Ташкенбаев Н.Х. Древнейшее прошлое
Самарканда. ОНУ. 1970. №9.
5.
Ахунбабаев Х.Г. Астрагал с греческой надписью из раскопок на
Афрасиябе \\ ИМКУ. Вып. 25. Ташкент. 1991,
6.
Бартольд В.В. Туркестан в эпоху монгольского нашествия. Соч. т.
1. М.: 1963.
7.
Соколовская Л.Ф. Некоторые итоги изучении керамики
Афрасиаба XII веке
