TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND THEIR EFFICIENCY

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TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND THEIR EFFICIENCY

Andijan Machine Building Institute

Yusupov Abdurashid Khamidillaevich,

Oripova Dilnoza Karimjon kizi

Abstract:

The efficiency of photovoltaic cells is determined by the factors that

convert sunlight into electrical energy. This, in turn, depends on the materials of the
photovoltaic cells, their production technologies, and the angle at which the
photovoltaic cells are installed to receive sunlight. This work discusses the types of
photovoltaic cells, their operating principles, and methods for increasing their
efficiency.

Key words:

photovoltaic cell, photovoltaic effect, light beam, silicon, photon,

current flow, efficiency, perovskite, heterojunction, power, ohmic contact,
photocurrent.

Introduction

The history of the invention of the photocell begins with the discovery of the

photoelectric effect by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887. He found that
the discharge between the electrodes occurs faster when they are illuminated with
ultraviolet light. However, this discovery was not widely known and was forgotten
for several decades. The next important step in the history of photocells occurred in
1905, when Albert Einstein published his theory of the photoelectric effect. He
explained that light consists of particles (photons) and that each photon can knock an
electron out of a metal. This discovery became the basis for the further development
of photocells. The first practical photocell was created in 1923 by the Soviet scientist
Oleg Losev. He used silicon carbide as a semiconductor and generated current when
exposed to light. However, his device had low efficiency and was not widely used.
The next important step in the development of solar cells was the discovery of
semiconductor materials in 1939 [1-5]. Japanese scientist Hideo Hosono discovered
that selenium has photoconductivity, that is, its conductivity increases with light. This
discovery became the basis for the creation of the first photovoltaic cells based on
selenium. With the development of semiconductor technology in the 1950s, the first
silicon solar cells were created, which had high efficiency and became the basis for
the creation of modern solar cells. In the 1960s, gallium arsenide-based solar cells
were developed, which had even higher efficiency. Modern solar cells continue to
develop using new materials and technologies. For example, in recent years, solar
cells based on perovskites, which have high efficiency and low production costs, have
been actively studied [4-9].

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The main types are monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, perovskite and

organic photovoltaics. Monocrystalline photovoltaics have high efficiency, reaching
efficiencies of 18-25%, but their cost is relatively high. Polycrystalline photovoltaics
are cheaper, with efficiencies of around 15-18%. Amorphous photovoltaics are the
cheapest and most widely used type, but their efficiency is lower (7-10%). Perovskite-
based photovoltaics are a new technology, with efficiencies of 15-25%, but their long-
term reliability has not yet been fully proven. Organic photovoltaics are the newest
technology, with efficiencies of around 5-10%, and are characterized by their low cost
and flexibility. The balance between the efficiency and cost of photovoltaics is chosen
depending on the areas of their use and the conditions under which they are used [10-
13].

Operating principles for photocell
Energy conversion in solar cells is based on the photoelectric effect, which

occurs in inhomogeneous semiconductor structures under the influence of solar
radiation. When irradiated with sunlight, internal photoelectric effect phenomena
occur in semiconductors. Photocells are widely used in photometry (in photometers
and luxmeters) to measure light intensity, brightness and illuminance. For this,
photocells with a spectral sensitivity close to the spectral sensitivity of the eye are
used [14-16].

There are different types of photovoltaic cells, each with its own characteristics

and applications. Silicon photovoltaic cells: amorphous silicon (a-Si) - solar cells
based on amorphous silicon are the most common and available on the market. Their
efficiency is about 9-11%. Monocrystalline silicon (mc-Si) - these elements have a
higher efficiency (15-25%), but are also more expensive. Polycrystalline silicon (pc-
Si) - such solar cells occupy an intermediate position between a-Si and mc-Si in terms
of their characteristics (fig-1). There are many types of photovoltaic cells classified
according to various criteria [17-20].

Figure-1. Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline silicon

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Photovoltaic cells (e.g., solar panels) that convert light into electricity through

direct conversion.

Pyroelectric elements that use the change in electric field caused by temperature

changes.

Thermoelectric elements, in which electricity is generated by heating one of the

elements and then used to generate voltage.

External photoelectric effect. Another name for it is photoelectron emission.

Internal photoelectric effect - this affects the photoconductivity of a material. It is
called the transfer of photoelectrons from their own bodies to other bodies (solid
semiconductors) or electrolytes (liquids). The principle of operation of a photovoltaic
cell Energy conversion in solar cells is based on the photoelectric effect, which occurs
in heterogeneous semiconductor structures under the influence of solar radiation.
Internal photoelectric effect phenomena occur in semiconductors when they are
irradiated with sunlight [21-22].

The efficiency of converting light energy into electricity. This is one of the main

indicators of photovoltaic cells. Efficiency is measured as a percentage and indicates
how much of the solar energy is converted into electricity. Typical efficiency values
for silicon solar panels range from 15% to 25%, but can reach 30%. Power. This is
defined as the amount of electricity produced by a photocell per unit of time. Power
is measured in watts. The efficiency and power of photovoltaic cells can vary
depending on size, type, and operating conditions. Open circuit voltage and short
circuit current, these two parameters are measured under no-load conditions and are
used to determine the maximum power of a solar cell. Open circuit voltage is the
voltage that appears between the two contacts of a photocell when there is no current.
Short circuit current is the maximum current that a photocell can produce when the
circuit is open [23-24].

Maximum power (Pmax). The maximum power of a photocell is determined as

the product of the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current. This value
determines the efficiency of the solar cell and its ability to generate electrical energy.
A photocell is an electrical device that absorbs incident light and generates an electric
current (photocurrent) or photoelectric force. Its operation is based on the
phenomenon of photoelectron emission or the external photoeffect [25-26]. A
photocell operating on the basis of photoelectron emission consists of two electrodes
placed in a vacuum or gas-filled glass or quartz tube - a photocathode and an anode
electrovacuum device. The light flux incident on the photocathode generates
photoelectron emission on its surface; when the photocell circuit is connected, a
photocurrent similar to the light flux arises in it. In a gas-filled photocell, the
photocurrent increases as a result of the ionization of the gas and the formation of an
independent strong discharge.

Conclusion

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A photocell operating on the basis of the internal photoelectric effect consists of

a semiconductor device with a homogeneous electron-hole transition (r-junction),
semiconductor, heterojunction or metal-semiconductor contact. In such photocells,
optical rays are absorbed, the concentration of charge carriers increases, and an
electromotive force is generated. Photocells usually act as radiation or light receivers.
Semiconductor photocells are used in solar cells and photovoltaic generators to
directly convert solar energy into electrical energy. Photocells are used in automation,
telemechanics, photometry, measurement technology, metrology, astronautics,
photography, cinematography, and other fields.

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