ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
110
SCIENCE IN THE ERA OF MIRZO ULUGBEK: A HISTORICAL AND
PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
Islam A. Hamdamov
Associate Professor
Department of Humanities and Information Technologies
Samarkand State University of Foreign Languages
hamdamovislom79@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15515289
Abstract
. This study explores the stages of scientific and educational
development during the era of Mirzo Ulugbek through a comprehensive
historical-philosophical analysis. In the early 15th century, a scientific
renaissance emerged in the Eastern world, in which Mirzo Ulugbek’s personality
and his approach to science played a decisive role. The article examines the
educational system, scientific traditions, interrelations between disciplines, and
their philosophical and social impact during this period by focusing on the
activities of the Ulugbek Madrasah and Observatory in Samarkand. Drawing
upon scholarly sources, historical chronicles, and contemporary philosophical
methods of analysis, the research reveals the universal and contemporary
significance of Mirzo Ulugbek’s intellectual legacy.
Keywords
: Maragha, observatory, Beruni,
Qanun al-Mas‘udi
, Nasir al-Din
Tusi, Qazizoda Rumi, Mirzo Ulugbek,
History of the Four Uluses
, al-Kashi, Ali
Qushji, scientific-spiritual legacy,
Zij
, science, madrasah, observatory,
philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, history, Renaissance.
1. Introduction
Science and enlightenment are decisive factors in the development of any
society. In human history, certain individuals and periods have left especially
profound marks in this regard. One such figure is the great astronomer and
thinker, Mirzo Ulugbek, a leading representative of the Eastern Renaissance. His
life and work hold a significant place not only in the exact sciences but also in
the evolution of social thought. Under Ulugbek’s leadership, the scientific
environment of Samarkand became one of the most advanced centers in the
medieval Islamic world. The madrasah and observatory he established laid the
foundation not only for practical sciences but also for a philosophical approach
to knowledge. The development of science during this period had a profound
impact not only in terms of technological achievements but also in shaping
human perception of the universe, life, and existence itself. This article adopts a
historical and philosophical perspective to analyze the scientific progress of the
Ulugbek era. It also examines how his scientific legacy and educational activities
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
111
influenced not only his time but also the intellectual and spiritual development
of later generations. The study aims to shed light not only on historical facts but
also on the broader philosophical and social significance of science.
2. Methods
In the philosophical analysis of historical processes during the Timurid
era, the historical-analytical method was employed to examine the development
of science and enlightenment in the 15th century-particularly focusing on the
scientific environment and the formation of the educational system during the
era of Mirzo Ulugbek. This method made it possible to reconstruct the realities
of the period based on historical sources. At the same time, through a
philosophical-interpretative (hermeneutic) approach, Ulugbek’s attitude toward
science, his views on reason and knowledge, and the moral values embedded in
his worldview were analyzed. This approach helped to uncover the meaning and
philosophical essence of Mirzo Ulugbek’s intellectual activity. Based on a
systematic approach, the interrelations between various branches of science
(astronomy, mathematics, education, and philosophy) were studied, and the
harmonious development of these fields within the Ulugbek school was
demonstrated. Through the comparative method, the scientific development
during Mirzo Ulugbek’s time was compared with other historical periods-
particularly with the Renaissance movement in Europe-allowing for an analysis
of the shared and divergent features of Eastern and Western scientific traditions.
In addition, the source analysis method was used to study the works of Ulugbek
and his scholarly circle, historical chronicles, manuscripts, and contemporary
academic research, thereby revealing their scientific value and relevance for
modern scholarship. The integration of these methodological approaches
enabled a comprehensive examination of the scientific environment of Mirzo
Ulugbek’s era and made it possible to fully uncover its historical and
philosophical significance.
3. Results
The scientific achievements attained in the fields of exact, natural, and
human sciences during the Timurid era signified not only a regional
advancement but also an intellectual and cultural rise throughout the entire
Islamic world. This spiritual and educational progress was, above all, closely
associated with the name of Mirzo Ulugbek. Through his extensive efforts to
establish science and organize its systematic foundations in the region of
Mawarannahr, Mirzo Ulugbek succeeded in attracting the attention of scholars
from various parts of the Muslim world. Among such eminent thinkers, Qazizoda
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
112
Rumi held a special place. Qazizoda Rumi was born in the city of Bursa, located
on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmara in Asia Minor, around the 1360s.
He received his early education in his hometown and later studied astronomy
and mathematics under Shams al-Din Fanari. Even at that early stage, he deeply
mastered a scientific approach grounded in critical thinking and logical analysis.
From his teacher, he learned about the scientific legacy and intellectual influence
of the mathematicians and astronomers of Khorasan and Mawarannahr. Driven
by a thirst for knowledge and a passion for enlightenment, Qazizoda Rumi left
his hometown at about the age of twenty-in the early 1380s-and set out
eastward on an intellectual and spiritual journey. While the sources do not
provide precise historical information on when and where Qazizoda Rumi first
met Mirzo Ulugbek, the preface to Ulugbek’s renowned work
Zij-i Jadid-i
Kuragoni
refers to Qazizoda Rumi as his “ustadh” (master). This designation
indicates that their intellectual and spiritual relationship had been established
quite early. The term reflects not only personal reverence but also signifies the
continuity of a school of thought and the preservation of traditional scientific
heritage within the framework of the master-disciple system [1-32]. After
ascending to the throne of Maverannahr, Mirzo Ulugh Beg paid great attention to
the moral and scientific potential of his teacher, Qazizada Rumi, in his efforts to
promote science and enlightenment. He invited his mentor to Samarkand and
created a suitable environment for scholarly work and research. Qazizada
remained active in Samarkand until the end of his life, engaging not only in
teaching but also in the creation of a significant scientific legacy.The madrasa
and observatory established on the initiative of Mirzo Ulugh Beg were founded
under the direct scientific leadership and guidance of Qazizada Rumi. The
scholar took an active part in the early work on the "Zij-i Kuragoni"
(Astronomical Tables of Kuragoni). At the Ulugh Beg Madrasa in Samarkand,
Qazizada was not only a teacher but also deeply involved in mathematical and
astronomical research. One of the prominent astronomers mentioned in Ulugh
Beg's work
Zij-i Jadid-i Kuragoni
was Jamshid ibn Mas'ud ibn Mahmud al-Kashi.
Born in the city of Kashan in the region of Iraq-i Ajam, he was recognized as one
of the most knowledgeable astronomers and mathematicians of his time. As
noted in his astronomical treatises, al-Kashi studied numerous ancient sources
in depth during the process of compiling his own
Zij
(astronomical tables),
analyzing data from different regions through a syncretic approach. However,
realizing that the available sources and observatories in Iraq were insufficient
for advanced astronomical research, and influenced by what he had heard about
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
113
Ulugh Beg’s observatory in Samarkand and its scholarly environment, he
decided to travel to Maverannahr. In Samarkand, he completed his astronomical
works with excellence and presented his compiled
Zij
to the great ruler and
patron, Mirzo Ulugh Beg, for his library. His
Zij
was titled
Zij-i Haqani dar Takmil-
i Zij-i Ilkhani
("The Royal Astronomical Tables in Completion of the Ilkhanid
Zij"), a name that not only aimed to connect his scientific legacy with historical
tradition but also to outline the core principles of the new astronomical school
in Samarkand. This work became widely known throughout Maverannahr and
Turkestan, earning great attention and prestige in its time. The arrival of
Jamshid al-Kashi in Samarkand and his participation in the scientific and
intellectual environment shaped around Mirzo Ulugh Beg represent one of the
pivotal stages of the Eastern Renaissance. His scientific legacy continues to
influence modern science to this day. Before Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s renowned work
Zij-i Jadid
, the astronomical treatise compiled by Jamshid al-Kashi had already
been recognized as one of the most complete and scientifically grounded works
in the history of the Maverannahr school of science. This
Zij
played a crucial role
not only in the collection and analysis of astronomical data but also served as a
scientific model for Ulugh Beg’s later
Zij.
This continuity vividly illustrates the
organic connection and transmission of experience between generations of
scholars.Jamshid al-Kashi achieved great theoretical breakthroughs not only in
astronomy but also in mathematics. His work titled
Miftah al-Hisab
(The Key to
Arithmetic) is dedicated to both the theoretical and practical aspects of
mathematics, and in the preface of this treatise, he specifically emphasizes that it
was written in Samarkand. This fact proves that al-Kashi’s scientific legacy is
indeed a product of the Maverannahr scientific environment.In this preface, he
also lists several other important scientific works of his, including
Sullam al-
Sama
,
Risala al-Watar wal-Jaib
, and
Nuzhat al-Hada’iq
, which demonstrate his
broad and comprehensive approach to science. These treatises served as crucial
sources for the integrated study of astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.Jamshid
al-Kashi’s scientific activities in Samarkand, along with the works he produced
in the madrasa and observatory environment, represent some of the most
outstanding manifestations of the intellectual milieu formed during the time of
Mirzo Ulugh Beg, making a significant contribution to the development of
science in the East. One of the most important and direct sources concerning the
activities of the madrasa and observatory in Samarkand is a letter written by
Jamshid al-Kashi to his father, who resided in the city of Kashan. This document
holds not only scientific value but also considerable spiritual and historical
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
114
significance. The letter provides detailed information about the intellectual
environment that developed in Samarkand, the exchange of ideas among
scholars, and the high level of research work. Most importantly, it portrays
Mirzo Ulugh Beg not merely as a ruler but as a highly capable scholar and the
distinguished organizer of a sophisticated scientific school[2]. In his letter, al-
Kashi sincerely and candidly reflects on Ulugh Beg’s dedication to science, his
respect for scholars, and the conditions created for the development of
knowledge and learning. This allows us to view the Samarkand madrasa as a
leading scientific center in the Eastern world of that era. The letter directly
expresses the balanced relationship between state policy and intellectual
development during the Timurid period. In the letter Jamshid al-Kashi wrote to
his father in Kashan, Ulugh Beg’s extraordinary intellect, intellectual capacity,
and devotion to science are highly praised. The information contained in this
letter provides important insight into the methodological orientation of the
Samarkand school of astronomy. Specifically, it reveals that the Samarkand
scholars supported Ptolemy’s geocentric theory and conducted analysis and
research based on his work
Almagest
. Inspired by the scientific achievements of
the Maragha observatory’s scholars, they also utilized the works of al-Biruni
(
Qanun Mas’udi
) and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi’s astronomical legacy in their
methodologies. Among the distinguished scholars mentioned in the preface of
Ulugh Beg’s
Zij
, Aloviddin Ali ibn Muhammad Qushji is respectfully noted as the
third major figure. Ali Qushji was one of the prominent representatives of Ulugh
Beg’s scientific school, whose creative and theoretical work matured within the
intellectual environment of Samarkand. Ulugh Beg personally addressed Ali
Qushji with high scientific esteem, calling him “farzandi arjumand,” meaning “my
honored and devoted son.” These words clearly demonstrate Ulugh Beg’s
positive attitude toward scholars [3-32]. Ali Qushji was one of the accomplished
students who deeply assimilated Ulugh Beg’s scientific and spiritual legacy and
remained devoted to it. He matured not only as Ulugh Beg’s disciple but also as a
thinker who continued his scientific traditions. Ali Qushji became one of the
great scholars who harmonized Eastern and Western scientific traditions. After
Ulugh Beg’s death and due to the complex situation in Mawarannahr, Ali Qushji
left Samarkand and went to the Ottoman Sultanate, where he continued his
scientific work at a new level. There, he gathered capable students and scholars
around him and revived the traditions of the Samarkand school of astronomy in
a new phase. Here, we have only mentioned the most famous of the great
scholars active in Ulugh Beg’s scientific school. However, in their collective
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
115
efforts, the primary initiator, organizer, and leader was undoubtedly Ulugh Beg
himself. The fact that Ulugh Beg’s contributions were not limited to the
Zij
also
testifies to his high scientific mastery. Another important work he authored is
the treatise titled
Risala fi Ishtikhraj Jayb Daraja Wahida
(“Treatise on the
Extraction of the Sine of an Arc”). In this work, the method of determining
trigonometric functions is explained on a scientific basis. Of particular interest is
the section on “Rules for Operating and Correcting Tables”[4-311,319]. While
Mirzo Ulugh Beg was conducting practical and theoretical work on his famous
Ziji Jadid
(New Astronomical Tables), like-minded scholars prepared detailed
commentaries dedicated to the content of the treatise. These commentaries
helped deepen the scientific foundations of the
Zij
and expand its practical
applications. At the same time, researchers succeeded in identifying the
complete manuscript of the treatise, reconstructing it based on written sources,
and producing a scholarly translation into Russian. These efforts further
elevated the
Zij
’s significance on the international scientific stage and firmly
established its place within centuries-old scientific traditions[5-69,109]. Mirzo
Ulugh Beg gained renown within the scientific community primarily for his
achievements in astronomy and mathematics. However, medieval sources
describe him not only as a specialist in the natural sciences but also as a
distinguished expert in classical Arabic and Persian literature, the art of music,
and historical studies. An important work that confirms his knowledge in the
humanities is
Tarikhi Arbaʿ Ulus
(“History of the Four Nations”) [6], dedicated to
the history of the Mongol state. This work reveals Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s place and
theoretical potential in the field of historiography. The aforementioned works
were created in the spirit and level of the 15th-century Renaissance. During the
Timurid era, madrasas served as centers of higher education, functioning not
only as institutions for religious studies but also as hubs for secular sciences.
Especially in the regions of Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) and Khorasan, a
significant number of madrasas were built with the support of the state and
patrons. The curricula in these madrasas were comprehensive, including not
only theology (kalam) but also jurisprudence (fiqh), logic, mathematics
(riyaziyat), geometry (handasa), astronomy (ilm al-haya), medicine, history,
geography, literature, prosody (ilm al-arud), and the Arabic language, alongside
secular sciences. The Timurid period demonstrates that knowledge, science, and
logic-based thinking were elevated to the level of state policy. Teachers working
in these madrasas were highly knowledgeable experts in their respective fields
and received special salaries, indicating a high social regard for the scholarly
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
116
community. A madrasa was not only a place of education but also served as a
systematic foundation for the development of science and knowledge. Mirzo
Ulugh Beg established madrasas in Bukhara [7-176,177], Gijduvan, and
Samarkand [8-277]. Typically, the facades and gates of madrasas were adorned
with verses from the Holy Quran or phrases from Hadiths calling for the pursuit
of knowledge, symbolizing the sacred purpose of education and upbringing. This
tradition was continued in the madrasa building established by Mirzo Ulugh Beg
in Bukhara. Notably, on the upper right part of the madrasa’s gate, the famous
Hadith "Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim man and woman"
[9-6] was inscribed, emphasizing the call to knowledge and its importance.
These inscriptions clearly confirm Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s serious attitude towards
science and education, especially through institutions like madrasas, recognizing
knowledge dissemination as a decisive factor in the development of the state
and society. During the era of Mirzo Ulugh Beg, the city of Samarkand was home
to madrasas famously known by the names Khanim, Qutbiddin Sadr, and
Muhammad Sultan. These educational institutions were not limited to religious
instruction but also emerged as key centers for secular sciences. Students
studying in madrasas and khanaqahs engaged in thorough analysis of works
related to source studies, logic, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and other
sciences. During the Timurid period, royal palaces housed rich libraries
preserving rare manuscripts and works on the ancient sciences of both the East
and the West. These libraries served not only as treasuries of knowledge but
also as a solid scientific foundation for the advancement of contemporary
science. In this way, madrasas, khanaqahs, and libraries became an integral part
of the medieval scientific and educational environment.
3. Discussion
The development of science during Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s era was not limited to
significant achievements in astronomy and mathematics but also notably laid
the groundwork for the advancement of general knowledge and philosophical
consciousness. Within Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s scientific school, the interconnection
between disciplines and their socio-scientific roles can be fully understood.
During this period, science and philosophy were deeply integrated, which in
turn became a crucial factor in shaping a human mindset striving for knowledge
and truth. Based on historical sources and Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s own works, it is
evident that scientific inquiry emphasized not only the practical aspects of
science but also its spiritual and ethical responsibilities.This is a philosophical
expression of science’s socially responsible role in the progress of humanity.
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
117
Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s attitude toward knowledge, along with the scientific
environment created by his educational institutions and observatory, served to
harmonize national and universal interests in the human process of cognition.
This demonstrates that knowledge and enlightenment are not isolated fields but
essential components of overall humanism and spiritual development.
Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that the scientific advancements
during Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s era influenced not only the regional but the entire
Eastern scientific landscape, subsequently impacting the European Renaissance
in later centuries. This historical-philosophical analysis thus provides a broader
understanding not only of Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s personal scientific achievements
but also of the intellectual and scientific atmosphere of an entire epoch.
4. Conclusion
Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s era in science is remembered not only for significant
scientific achievements and discoveries but also for its crucial role in
strengthening the philosophical approach to knowledge. Mirzo Ulugh Beg’s
scientific legacy, along with the educational system he founded and the
observatory he established, laid a solid foundation for the development of
human intellect and enlightenment. Historical and philosophical analyses reveal
that the Ulugh Beg school embodied the harmony between different sciences,
clarified the role of knowledge in societal progress, and approached knowledge
from a moral and ethical perspective. This clearly demonstrates that science’s
importance extends beyond technical aspects to encompass social and spiritual
dimensions as well. Therefore, the period of Mirzo Ulugh Beg should be
regarded not only as a pivotal stage in the history of Central Asian and Eastern
science but also as a significant milestone on humanity’s path toward
enlightenment. The scientific and philosophical heritage of this era continues to
be systematically studied today, serving as a worthy foundation for the
advancement of contemporary knowledge and education.
References:
1.
Улуғбек
Мухаммад
Тарагай.
Зидж.
Новые
гурагановы
астрономические таблицы / Вступительная статья, перевод, комментарии
и указатели А.А. Ахмедова. Ташкент, 1994. 32-бет.
2.
Собиров Г., Бабаев Н. Джамшид Гиясэддин ал-Каши. Письмо об
Улугбеке и о самаркандской научной школе // Творческое сотрудничество
ученых Средней Азии в Самаркандской научной школе Улугбека. Душанбе.
1973.
ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN MODERN SCIENCE
International scientific-online conference
118
3.
Улуғбек
Мухаммад
Тарагай.
Зидж.
Новые
гурагановы
астрономические таблицы / Вступительная статья, перевод, комментарии
и указатели А.А. Ахмедова. Ташкент, 1994. 32-бет.
4.
Джемшид Гиясэддин ал-Каши. Ключ арифметики. Трактат об
окружности. Перевод с арабского Б.А. Розенфельда. Комментарии А.П.
Юшкевича и Б.А. Розенфельда. Москва. 1956. С.311-319; Ахмедов А.,
Розенфельд Б.А. Кто был автором «Трактата об определении синуса одного
градуса»? // Общественные науки Узбекистане. 1975. № 10, С. 51-53.
5.
Ахмедов А. О комментариях Абд ал-Али Хусайна Биржанди к “Зиджу”
Улугбека // Из истории науки эпохи Улугбека. Ташкент. 1979, С. 69-109.
6.
Мирзо Улуғбек. Тўрт улус тарихи // А.Аҳмедов, М. Ҳасаний тарж.
Тошкент. 1994.
7.
Пугаченкова Г.А. Самарканд. Бухара. . – Москва: Искусство, 1968.-
С.176-177.
8.
Абдурраззоқ Самарқандий. Матлаи саъдайн ва мажмаи баҳрайн. –
Тошкент: O„zbekiston, 2008. - Б277.
9.
Валихўжаев Б. Мирзо Улуғбек даври мадрасалари. Самарқанд, 2001.
Б.6.
10.
Hamdamov I.A. Мирзо Улуғбек мадрасасида билимлар тараққиёти.
(ижтимоий-фалсафий таҳлил) International Journal of Intellectual and
Cultural
Heritage.
Online
18th
December
2024
–B.214-
219.Volume:4Issue:06.2024. http://ihm.iscience.uz/index.php/ijich
11.
I.A. Hamdamov. Mirzo Ulug‘bek madrasasi olimlari va ularning ilmiy
izlanishlari. Mirzo Ulu’bek nomidagi O’zbekiston milliy universiteti, Sharq tarixi,
siyosati va huquqi jurnali. 5(02), -B-250,257. ISSN 2181-2780. DOI:
https://www.supportscience.uz/index.php/ojhpl
