Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika –
Зарубежная лингвистика и
лингводидактика – Foreign
Linguistics and Linguodidactics
Journal home page:
https://inscience.uz/index.php/foreign-linguistics
Is the interlanguage hypothesis extended to children?
Angelina SAYDASHEVA
1
INHA university
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received November 2024
Received in revised form
10 December 2024
Accepted 25 December 2024
Available online
25 January 2025
Of late, the Interlanguage Hypothesis (IH) has been primarily
studied in relation to adult learners of second languages (SLA).
This study explores the possibility of extending IH to children
through a detailed case study of a prepubescent learner.
Building on research pioneered by Selinker (1972) and Corder
(1967), the study examines key psycholinguistic processes,
including native language transfer, overgeneralization, and
simplification.
The subject of the study was a nine-year-old Russian-
speaking girl learning English. Data were collected during two
assessments, which served as both a pre-test and post-test
following lessons that incorporated Total Physical Response
(TPR) and the Natural Approach. After one month, results
indicated a notable increase in correct grammatical
constructions, although some persistent difficulties related to
language transfer and fossilization markers remained.
These findings confirm that interlanguage phenomena occur
in children just as they do in adults. However, the incomplete
and persistent nature of certain errors suggests that
interlanguage development in children is more complex than in
adults, as it is influenced by their unique cultural context and
the limited exposure to the target language outside the
classroom. Such observations underscore the need for further
research on the application of IH in childhood while also
emphasizing the importance of developing more effective early
language teaching methods.
2181-3701/© 2024 in Science LLC.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47689/2181-3701-vol3-iss1
This is an open-access article under the Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) license (
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.ru
Keywords:
Interlanguage Hypothesis
(IH),
linguistic,
Native Language (NL),
overgeneralization,
Second Language
Acquasition (SLA),
Target Language (TL),
Total Physical Response
(TPR)
1
Lecturer, INHA university. Tashkent, Uzbekistan. E-mail: angelina.saydasheva@gmail.com
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
Special Issue – 1 (2025) / ISSN 2181-3701
306
Тиллараро гипотеза болаларга ҳам тааллуқлими?
АННОТАЦИЯ
Калит сўзлар:
тиллараро гипотеза (ИҲ),
лингвистик,
она тили (НЛ),
овергенерализация,
иккинчи тилни егаллаш
(СЛА),
мақсадли тил (ТЛ),
жами жисмоний жавоб
(ТПР).
Мавҳум Кеч, тиллараро гипотеза (ИҲ) асосан иккинчи
тилларни (СЛА) катталар ўрганувчиларига нисбатан
ўрганилган. Ушбу асар иҳ ни болаларга балоғатга етмаган
ёшдаги ўқувчининг батафсил амалий тадқиқоти билан
кенгайтириш имкониятини ўрганади. Селинкер (1972) ва
Кордер (1967) томонидан олиб борилган тадқиқотлардан
сўнг, тадқиқот она тилини узатиш, ҳаддан ташқари
генерализация ва соддалаштириш каби психолингвистик
жараёнларни таҳлил қилади. Инглиз тилини ўрганаётган
тўққиз ёшли русийзабон қиз тадқиқот мавзуси бўлди ва
иккита баҳолаш давомида маълумотлар тўпланди.
Синовдан олдинги ва кейинги тест сифатида хизмат
қилган баҳолашлар ТПР ва табиий ёндашувни қўллаган
дарслардан сўнг ўтказилди. Бир ойлик натижалар тўғри
грамматик
тузилмаларнинг
сезиларли
даражада
ошганлигини кўрсатади, гарчи тилни узатиш ва тошбўрон
қилиш
белгилари
билан
боғлиқ
баъзи
доимий
қийинчиликлар ҳали ҳам сақланиб қолган. Ушбу
натижалар билан, катталар сингари, болаларда ҳам
тиллараро ҳодисалар пайдо бўлиши мумкинлиги аниқ
бўлди. Бошқа тил хатоларининг тўлиқ бўлмаган ва доимий
табиати болаларнинг тиллараро ривожланиши уларнинг
ўзига хос маданий контекстини ва синфдан ташқари
мақсадли тилнинг чекланганлигини ҳисобга олган ҳолда
катталарникига қараганда анча мураккаб еканлигини
кўрсатади. Бундай кузатувлар ИҲ ни болалик даврида
қўллаш бўйича кейинги тадқиқотларни рағбатлантиради,
шу билан бирга ерта тилни ўқитишнинг янада самарали
усулларини ишлаб чиқиш зарурлигини таъкидлайди.
Распространяется ли межъязыковая гипотеза на детей?
АННОТАЦИЯ
Ключевые слова:
межъязыковая гипотеза
(IH), лингвистика,
Родной язык (NL),
чрезмерное обобщение,
Владение вторым языком
(SLA),
Целевой язык (TL), Общая
физическая реакция (TPR).
В последнее время межъязыковая гипотеза (IH) в
основном
изучалась
применительно
к
взрослым,
изучающим неродные языки (SLA). В данной работе
исследуется возможность распространения IH на детей на
примере учащихся допубертатного возраста. Следуя
исследованиям,
начатым
Селинкером
(1972)
и
Кордером
(1967),
в
исследовании
анализируются
психолингвистические процессы, такие как перенос
родного языка, чрезмерное обобщение и упрощение.
Объектом
исследования
была
девятилетняя
русскоязычная девочка, изучающая английский язык, и
данные были собраны в ходе двух оценок. Тестирование,
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
Special Issue – 1 (2025) / ISSN 2181-3701
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которое служило как предтестовым, так и посттестовым,
проводилось после уроков, в которых использовались TPR
и естественный подход. Результаты, полученные за один
месяц, указывают на заметное увеличение количества
правильных грамматических конструкций, хотя некоторые
постоянные трудности, связанные с переводом языка и
маркерами окаменения, все еще оставались. Благодаря
этим результатам теперь ясно, что межъязыковые явления
могут возникать у детей так же, как и у взрослых.
Неполный и постоянный характер других языковых
ошибок указывает на то, что межъязыковое развитие
детей является более сложным, чем у взрослых, принимая
во внимание их уникальный культурный контекст и
ограниченную
доступность
изучаемого
языка
за
пределами классной комнаты. Такие наблюдения
поощряют дальнейшие исследования по применению IH в
детском возрасте, а также подчеркивают необходимость
разработки более эффективных методов раннего обучения
языку.
SUMMARY
The article analyzes if the Interlanguage Hypothesis (IH), a hypothesis on second
language learning by adults, can also be applied to children. The IH posits that there is an
intermediate language system that exists between a learner’s native language (NL) and
the target language (TL). Some researchers have proposed that there are interlanguage
processes in young learners, despite most work has been done on adults. This research
looks at these processes in a nine years old Russian-speaking student who is learning
English.
A case study design was developed and consisted of pre-test and post-test to
diagnose interlanguage mistakes. The author did the teaching for over a month.
The researcher used TPR and the Natural Approach where children participated in active
lessons like narrative picture sequencing, flashcard reading, and drawing stories.
The goals of these methods were to reduce overgeneralization, simplification, and
language transfer from Russian to English.
Initial assessments suggest that there were severe grammatical mistakes in the
learner, such as overgeneralization, and use of simplification such as placing regular
forms on verbs that are irregular, as well as transfer errors. During the intervention
phase, targeted activities largely helped in reducing the error rate. However, several
lingering problems, especially in grammar, remained due to insufficient English exposure
apart from the classroom and the environment being predominantly Russian.
The study seeks to demonstrate that interlanguage phenomena is not unique to
adult learners only but also exist among children. Although the instructional
interventions one utilized brought about significant improvement, there were still
persistent errors, which point to the need for further exposure as well as focused
culturally competent pedagogical interventions. Such results underscore the extensive
planning required for adequately addressing the needs of young learners through
effective SLA programs. In addition, these results illustrate the need for and the ways in
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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which children can be provided sufficient rich language in and outside the classroom.
Such environments are crucial in fostering interlanguage development among children
and in reducing persistent errors in second language acquisition.
LITERATURE REVIEW
By large-scale study on the Interlanguage Hypothesis, we firmly believe that
determining interlanguage competence constitutes one of the main goals of second
language acquisition (SLA) as it cannot be examined directly. The nature of interlanguage
competence can be checked indirectly via reviewing interlanguage performance data
(e.g., spontaneous speech), comprehension data, and grammaticality judgments, which
have been often used in SLA research. Selinker (1972), the founder of the Interlanguage
Hypothesis, believed that much of language learning depends on behavioral events where
students try to express meanings, that they already possess, in a language that they are
learning (i.e., meaningful performance in an L2). However, other scholars thought that
learners’ speech was spontaneous and was gathered longitudinally (Huang, 1970; Milon,
1974; Hakuta, 1974; Cancino et al., 1978; Wong-Fillmore, 1976; Lightbown, 1977;
Gerbault, 1978; Ravem, 1978; Wode, 1978; Felix, 1980). Nevertheless, in the 1980s, the
use of longitudinal data decreased its prominence. Up until recently, the Interlanguage
(IL) hypothesis had been employed only in the language learning of mature students.
According to Selinker (1972), there is the existence of a latent psychological structure
within which interlingual identifications along with processes and strategies can be
found and the latent psychological structure can be activated after puberty. However,
Swain and Dumas (1972) claim that the target language produced by a young learner is
quite different from a native-speaking child, meaning that the IL hypothesis is true for
children’s acquisition when it is non-simultaneous, and the absence of native-speaking
peers of the TL exists.
Barik and Swain researched to prove that the IL hypothesis can be found in young
learners as well. They collected data from 7-year-old boys and girls, whose native
language was English, but who were learning French as their TL. After two years of
research, it was proved that children could speak French and they did not have any
problems with phonetic level or vocabulary choice, but their weakest side was grammar
errors which were transferred from their native language which is a good example of IL
hypothesis. This happens because of the universal ‘built-in syllabus’ that guides learners
in the systematic development of their linguistic system, or ‘transitional competence’
(Corder, 1967, 1981).
Selinker (1972) proposed five psycholinguistic processes that shape
interlanguage:
1)
Native language transfer;
2)
Overgeneralization of target language rules;
3)
Transfer of training;
4)
Strategies of communication;
5)
Strategies of learning.
Native language transfer happens because learners make ‘interlingual
identifications’ in approaching the task of learning a second language: they comprehend
certain units as the same in their NL, IL, and TL.
Overgeneralization is a psycholinguistic process of producing target language
rules. This process is often noticed in child language acquisition: the learner shows that
he learned a general rule, but does not know the exceptions to this rule.
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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A transfer of training happens when a learner applies rules from teachers or
textbooks. This learning can be successful if the rules of NL and TL are similar; and not,
cause errors. Strategies of communication can be applied by learners while the output
process when they want to say something they do not know by using simple definitions
instead. Strategies of learning is a learner’s conscious attempt to assimilate the TL. One of
the strategies is the conscious comparison of what they produce in IL with the NL and a
received target, making up interlingual identifications. There are other examples of
learning strategies:
using flashcards, learning the dialogues or words, etc. However, they can also be
successful or not, as learners can get confused with the TL word.
On top of the five mentioned above psycholinguistic processes, there is a
fossilization process. It is a phenomenon in interlanguage – the process in which a
learner’s development stops, obviously permanently (Selinker, 1972). However,
interlanguage forms shift and change in different social contexts (Tarone, 1979, 1988).
Much research evidence shows that social context is one of the main factors of
interlanguage development. Even in some cases, social contexts can change the
developmental sequence in SLA (Tarone & Liu, 1995).
The interlanguage hypothesis provided the original flame that was set to light a
field of research on second language acquisition and provided theoretical orientations
(Tarone, 1988). Nevertheless, IL hypothesis depends not only on the age of learners but
on social contexts as well.
PARTICIPANT PROFILE
To put this case study in research, we decided to choose a young learner who has
some difficulties in language learning due to the problems of interference of the first
language which holds at a fossilization process. One of my female learners, who is having
tutorial lessons with me, is in the pre-puberty period, at the age of nine, and has been
studying English for two years, however, there were some pauses during these two years,
so she has finished beginner’s level and now is at the turn of elementary level. She comes
from a Russian cultural background from a monolingual family, where only the Russian
language is spoken. That means that the learner is fluent in L1. Nevertheless, she can be
considered bilingual since she can speak English at an elementary level. She is a
schoolgirl in the third grade of a Russian-speaking elementary school, where English
classes take place only twice a week M is doing well at school, she comprehends all the
subjects easily and is an A pupil.
Throughout her English language learning, different methods were used. The
dominant one was the Total Physical Response (TPR) where the learner watched some
adapted videos according to the topic and repeated them by dancing, doing some
physical activities, and singing, which she found entertaining and engaging. Also, the
game “Simon Says” took place. Along with the TPR, the Natural Approach was used,
which was aimed at basic communication skills in everyday language situations –
conversations about shopping, family, preferences, and listening to songs.
Initially, when the learner started to learn the language, extrinsic motivation drove
an L2 student to study English to please the parents as they desired to make their child
learn the language since currently, it is a global language. However, after some time, the
learner became interested in reading Harry Potter books and was willing to be able to
understand the most popular series of books in their original language – English, and
simultaneously watch the same films, meaning that now intrinsic motivation drives to
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и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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learn the target language being closer to the culture of famous book heroes. Different
activities help my young participant to learn, for instance, watching short cartoons or
animated songs improves receptive skills; while reading short stories and retelling them
helps to develop productive skills.
At the beginning of the research, having considered all the learner’s abilities and
interests, knowing that she is at her pre-puberty age, I thought that M. would be able to
overcome interlanguage errors. However, coming to the end of the study, I realized its
impossibility since my research showed that the IH is extended to children.
RESEARCH DESIGN
At the beginning of the research, the subject and her guardian signed a consent
form agreeing to participate in the research to avoid interlanguage errors in second
language acquisition.
A grammar test was chosen to check the errors of my learner and according to this
test, I have identified interlanguage problems like overgeneralization, simplification, and
language transfer in the second language acquisition of my learner.
Different activities were facilitated to improve the grammar level and speaking
skills of the subject. Nonetheless, before conducting them, the learner’s variables like
intellectual development, attention span, sensory input, affective factors, and authentic
language were taken into consideration since the subject is a child. As a TPR and Natural
approach were used with the subject before, we decided to use the same methods but
with various activities. The first one aimed to improve the grammar which was
simplified. This task included pictured stories with sentences describing them. However,
the stories were jumbled and the learner’s task was to order the pictures to have a full
story. This activity helped the subject to unconsciously remember the rules in the context
as it was an engaging process that reminds a puzzle and simultaneously improves
thinking skills along with grammar rules.
The second type of activity was aimed to avoid the overgeneralization of the rules.
First, we read adapted short stories for beginners and while reading, underlined all the
words that could be overgeneralized, having finished that, the subject’s task was at my
command to show the illustrated cards with the underlined words that were used in the
story. This activity motivated the learner to remember the words to gain more correct
answers and it woke the sense of achievement.
The third activity was based on getting rid of the language transfer. Namely, most
of the mistakes were related to prepositions while speaking. The activity is called
Draw
My Direction.
The learner was given instructions for drawing a picture without
mentioning what the picture was. According to my directions with using prepositions, the
learner had to draw a picture. Following this, she had to describe the picture herself, not
the words separately but as a whole story, also using the prepositions. This task was
really useful in terms of revising grammar and at the same time improving imagination
and speaking skills as well.
Before conducting these activities, the subject was informed of the aim to improve
her grammar and speaking mistakes which were a background of her mother tongue
language. She admitted that she found the tasks engaging, motivating, and useful since by
the end of the research she could manage to speak better and made fewer interlanguage
errors. And the main thing was that she was able to understand her favorite series of
J.K. Rowling’s books, achieving her aim. However, she still needed some professional help
to understand some of the unknown vocabulary.
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и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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DATA COLLECTION AND FINDINGS
To research the Interlanguage hypothesis, we used a pre-test and post-test to
identify if this hypothesis extended to children. Along with this, I kept a checklist of
activities used with the participants. The results and improvements were recorded there
as well. At the beginning of the research, after completing the pre-test by a learner,
I identified that she had some difficulties in using grammar appropriately. The errors
reflected overgeneralization (
buyed
), simplification (do you
nou, she playing, I not like
),
and language transfer (
wait to
,
visit to, speak in, go in,
) (See Appendix A). The effects of
these were the family background culture and the school environment since the English
language is not spoken either at home or at school, only the Russian language. Because of
the underuse of the English language outside the class, it led to some difficulties in
second language acquisition.
However, after the activities that were held throughout the month, the results of
the post-test showed a rapid succession of the participant’s knowledge. There were only
a few mistakes made by M. in the post-test. The number of errors decreased by more
than a half, accounting for nine mistakes at the beginning of the research, and making up
four at the end of the month, showing a good outcome and the effectiveness of the
conducted activities. As regards the activities themselves, which were held during the
month, the first one with illustrated stories with grammatically correct sentences, the
learner could memorize the structures well avoiding further mistakes on simplification of
the rules (
she plays the guitar)
. However, with the sentence (
Do you know – nou)
, the
error remained unchanged simplifying the spelling of the word with the silent consonant
at the beginning of the word. In the case of reading stories with flashcards,
overgeneralization still took place due to the lack of knowledge and the use of irregular
verbs (
buyed
). The participant mentioned that she could remember only the words which
she had used in the lessons on the cards but the new ones did not stick to her memory,
proving that the Interlanguage hypothesis can be extended to children, not only adults. In
the next activity
,
the subject’s attention was drawn to the prepositions which were
transferred from her mother tongue, Russian. (
Я говорю на Английском
–
I speak at
English
,
мы были в Китае – We visited to
China
) (See Appendix B). The participant noted
that her native language was dominating while translating the sentences into English
since there was a lack of practice outside the class. Nevertheless, this kind of task was
worthwhile not only for grammar improvement, but speaking as well. This activity
integrated both productive and perceptive skills which then contributed to a minor
number of mistakes.
After one month period, having outlined all the records and the results of the pre-
test and the post-test, it is seen that the number of errors was significantly reduced
showing the positive effect of the given activities and the subject could increase the level
of English. Nevertheless, some errors remained unchanged since the target language is
not used outside the class and the absence of native-speaking peers is the main stumbling
block in improving the language.
CONCLUSION
By the end of the research study, the participant still had some mistakes which
occurred from the state of limbo. Even though the activities were facilitated to improve
the knowledge of grammar, the errors still occurred due to the lack of English use outside
the class proving that the IH is extended to children as well as contradicting Selinker’s
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и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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view (1972) that Interlanguage is found in adult’s language learning while expressing
meaning in the act of contemplation. However, my research proved the hypothesis
published by Corder (1967) who mentioned that learners transfer the rules from the NL
into their TL to make them easier and simpler, creating their “universal grammar”. The
research of French scholars also proposed the idea that the Interlanguage hypothesis is
true for children. Swain (1995) admitted that there are various factors why children have
fossilization. The first reason was that children get native input from their teachers and
share non-native input with their peers, which is called “comprehensible output”.
Children try to utilize the interlanguage to be understood by others.
Nonetheless, there are some implications for this hypothesis since there is an
issue of how to measure and what data collection should be used to identify
interlanguage. Factors such as family background, culture, and the environment should
be considered to analyze the level of interlanguage. Still, this question remains unsolved
among many scholars and linguists. However, after my research, I can state that children
are on the same level of interlanguage as adults since all listed factors above influence the
way children acquire TL.
All things considered, having done this research, I think that simplification,
overgeneralization, and language transfer cannot be avoided at the beginning of
acquiring the language, especially if the culture of MT and TL is different. Nevertheless,
the errors which appear due to these factors could be reduced by finding the best
approach for the learner which can help the subject to input the information in the right
way. What I learned from this case study is that social context is the most crucial part of
interlanguage development in SLA theory. I firmly agree with Barik and Swain (1974)
that children do not have any problems with phonetics or in vocabulary, but their
weakest side was grammar errors which were transferred from their native language
meaning that teachers should pay more attention to grammar from the very beginning.
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
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Appendix A
Pre-test
Choose the correct answers:
1.
There are some … on the field.
a.
sheep b. sheeps c. ship
2.
I can see two …
a.
man b. men c. mans
3.
The birds … singing.
a.
are b. is c. –
4.
She … the quitar.
a.
play b.plays c. playing
5.
They … to school yesterday.
a.
went b. goed c. go
6.
We … a new TV last week.
a.
buyed b. buy c. bought
7.
Do you … his name?
a.
know b. no c. nou
8.
We wait … the bus all the time.
a.
- b. for c. to
9.
We visited … China.
a.
to b. - c. at
10.
I can speak … English.
a.
in b. at c. –
11.
They go … school every day.
a.
to b. in c. at
12.
I have two …
a. fish b. fishes c. fishs
13.
Why … you smiling?
a- b. are c. do
14.
They are … on a farm.
a.
works b. work c. working
15.
This students are very …
a.
smart b. smarts c. smarting
16.
I … like pumpkin.
a.
do nots b. do not c. not
17.
He … running.
a.
is b. - c. are
18.
There … three cats.
a.
is b. are c. no
19.
We live … the south.
a.
on b. in c. at
20.
Have they… a hamster?
a- b. got c. got
Question
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Answer
a b a c
c
a c c a
a
b
a
b
c
a
c
a
b
b
b
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
Special Issue – 1 (2025) / ISSN 2181-3701
314
Appendix A
Pre-test
Choose the correct answers:
1.
There are some … on the field.
a. sheep b. sheeps c. ship
2.
I can see two …
a. man b. men c. mans
3.
The birds … singing.
a. are b. is c. –
4.
She … the quitar.
a. play b.plays c. playing
5.
They … to school yesterday.
a. went b. goed c. go
6.
We … a new TV last week.
a. buyed b. buy c. bought
7.
Do you … his name?
a. know b. no c. nou
8.
We wait … the bus all the time.
a. - b. for c. to
9.
We visited … China.
a. to b. - c. at
10.
I can speak … English.
a. in b. at c. –
11.
They go … school every day.
a. to b. in c. at
I have two …
a. fish b. fishes c. fishs
12.
Why … you smiling?
a. - b. are c. do
13.
They are … on a farm.
a. works b. work c. working
14.
This students are very …
a. smart b. smarts c. smarting
15.
I … like pumpkin.
a. do nots b. do not c. not
16.
He … running.
a. is b. - c. are
17.
There … three cats.
a. is b. are c. no
18.
We live … the south.
a.
on b. in c. at
19.
Have they… a hamster?
a. - b. got c. have
Question
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Answer
a b a b a a c b a
b
a
a
b
c
a
b
a
b
b
b
Xorijiy lingvistika va lingvodidaktika – Зарубежная лингвистика
и лингводидактика – Foreign Linguistics and Linguodidactics
Special Issue – 1 (2025) / ISSN 2181-3701
315
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