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THE ORIGIN OF AFFIXES
Scientific supervisor:Khaydarova Nigora
Andijan state institute of foreign languages
Dilshoda Kosimdzhanova
Student, Department of Theory and Practice of
Russian Language, group RF-302
Email:Qosimjonovadilshoda04@gmail.com
Objective: The objective of this article is to investigate the etymology of
English affixes.
Methods. The main scientific results are obtained using a complex of general
scientific and special research methods, namely: analysis and synthesis of scientific
literature on the problems of etymology, word formation, affixation; theoretical
generalization and concretization; comparative method and methods linguistic
research (contrastive and structural).
Results. Etymological analysis plays a significant role in comparative
linguistics as it determines the origin of words, records the history of changes in their
structure, and explains their modern form
In the course of the study one of the main ways of word formation in English,
namely affixation was analysed.
Affixed morphemes make changes to the word, they are divided into word-
altering (modify the grammatical meaning) and word-forming (modify the lexical
meaning). The former perform a grammatical role without affecting the lexical
meaning of the word. Word-altering affixes are universal, i.e. they are applicable to
all (or most) words of a given grammatical category. Word forming affixes introduce
a new lexical meaning, additional to that already contained in the root morpheme.
Word-formation affixes are not universal, although, at first glance, they are used quite
regularly in the process of creating new words from the same root.
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English suffixes and prefixes are diverse in origin. Along with productive
suffixes and prefixes, which help to keep adding new lexical items to the English
language, there are non-productive or alloproductive ones that occur either in one
or more words or as a morphological feature of parts of speech.
The study of prefix and suffix morphemes in English allows us to better
understand the structural features of the language and their influence on word
formation and the expression of grammatical relations. The study of these
morphemes reveals the versatility of the language system, contributes to the
enrichment of linguistic richness and improves linguistic expression.
Key words: word formation, affix, suffix, prefix, etymological analysis
Introduction
Etymological analysis plays a significant role in comparative linguistics as it
determines the origin of words, records the history of changes in their structure, and
explains their modern form.
In current studies scientists increasingly turn to the etymological analysis of
words or individual morphemes of a word, since such an analysis can provide
thorough results that serve as the basis for conclusions about linguistic features,
culture and history of countries.
Affixes are something that people constantly use in speech and writing.
Understanding their contribution to the emotional colouring of language is an
important aspect for the linguistic field, and the etymological analysis of morphemes
will provide answers to questions about their variability and development. Thus, the
etymological analysis of affixes is relevant as it provides a deeper understanding of
the structural features of each language, its borrowings and the role of affixes in the
creation of neologisms.
The objective
of the article is to investigate the etymology of English affixes.
Methods
The main scientific results are obtained using a complex of general scientific
and special research methods, namely: analysis and synthesis of scientific literature
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on the problems of etymology, word formation, affixation; theoretical generalization
and concretization; comparative method and methods linguistic research (contrastive
and structural).
Results and Discussions
There are different ways of word formation. In English, the following methods
prevail: affixation (prefixes and suffixes), conversion (changing a part of speech),
abbreviation, blending. [3]
One of the most important aspects of learning the grammar of a language is
affixes – morphemes that are added to the base of a word to change its meaning or
grammatical characteristics.
In order to understand the language, it is necessary to distinguish between
different types of affixes and their functions; they are the basic building block of a
word, which determines its grammatical and semantic properties, and helps to
distinguish words by their function in speech. The Dictionary of the Modern
Ukrainian Language gives the following definition of an affix:
Affix
is a part of a word that has a specific grammatical meaning and changes
the meaning of the root. [1, р. 47]
According to the term, we can understand that affixes make significant
changes to the meaning of a word. There is a great variety of affixes. Affixes are
divided into types depending on their position in the word: prefixes, postfixes,
interfixes and others. Each type of affix has its own characteristics and uses in the
language. It is known that affixes perform three main functions in a word: word
forming, formative and word-altering.
Formative affixes form grammatical forms of words. When affixes form either
words with a new meaning or with an uncritically changed meaning, they perform a
word-forming function. Word forming affixes, in turn, form syntactic forms necessary
for coordinating words in speech. [2, p. 36]
Grammatically, affixes are divided into productive and unproductive
according to the level of use. Productive affixes are used to create new words, while
unproductive affixes are rarely or never used in modern language and can be called
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archaic. This variety of affixes allows us to express different grammatical and
semantic meanings.
Prefixes and suffixes are the most productive word-forming affixes.
Prefix
is a meaningful part of a word that comes before the root and is used
to create new words or forms of a word. [1, p. 1107]
A prefix changes the meaning of a word or the part of speech to which it
belongs, usually performing a word-forming and grammatical function. As the name
suggests, a prefix is placed before the root form of a word. In English, prefixes are
divided into Old English and loanwords, and they are also productive or unproductive
(obsolete). Old English prefixes which are considered to be productive unclude:
un-,
up-, down-, under-, mid-,
and others (as in
unkind, upgrade, downfall, underneath,
midnight
). Borrowed words prevail from French, Latin, Greek and other languages.
It should be noted that Greek and Latin had a great influence on the formation of the
lexical structure of the English language. For example, the prefix
un
of non-Latin
origin, which in addition to negating an action means "one", serves to form words that
have already become firmly established in English, such as
unary, unicorn, union
,
etc. [8]
Suffixes play an important role in creating new words by being added to the
stem. They can change the part of speech of a word (for example, adding the suffix
-
ness
turns an adjective into a noun:
happy – happiness
), indicate tense, state, number
and other properties of the word. A Large
Explanatory dictionary gives the following definition of the suffix:
Suffix
is a meaningful part of a word that stands between the root and the
ending and serves to create new words or individual forms. [1, p. 1417]
The name "suffix" comes from the Latin word "suffigere" which means "to
add to the end". [4] They are added to the root of a word that already has a specific
part of speech to form new words or to change their meaning. There are a large
number of suffixes in English, but they are used more limitedly than, for example, in
Ukrainian. The most commonly used suffixes are:
-ly
(to form adverbs),
-ness
(to form
nouns indicating state or quality),
-able/-ible
(to form adjectives indicating
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possibility),
-ment
(to form nouns from verbs),
-er/-or
(to form nouns indicating a
person or object that performs an action).
Let’s consider the etymology of affixes of the English language in detail.
Etymological analysis of English prefixes
English prefixes are known for their origin from different languages, due to
the influence of other cultures on the formation of the English language. Let's start
with the prefix
a-,
which has several different meanings in English. It can mean "on"
or "in" something, or performed in a specific way, and it also has a negative meaning.
It has high performance. We learn from sources that the prefix or particle
a-
contains
many different Germanic and Latin elements in its formation. In words originating
from Old English this prefix usually means the Old English word 'on, in, into', for
example,
alive, above, asleep, aback, aside, afoot, ashore, ahead, abed
, etc. In this
usage, it forms adjectives and adverbs from nouns with the concept of "in something,
participating in something".
[10] In Middle English it existed as "from-, new", as in
anew, afresh, akin,
abreast
. Also, it can be a reduced form of the Old English prefix in past participles
re-,
as in
aware.
[10] Another variant of the meaning may be Old English
a-,
originally
ar-
(related to German
er-
and probably meaning "movement from"), as in
abide, arise, awake, ashamed
, which marks the verb as an instantaneous event. In
words borrowed from Romanic languages it often represents shortened forms of the
Latin
ad
"towards, for", or
ab
"from, away, beyond". It was shortened to
a-
in the
ancestors of the Old
French. In several cases, it represents the Latin
ex-.
Based on the list of
meanings of the
a-
prefix in
English, we can determine that it has undergone significant changes and
expansions in meaning throughout the history of its formation. In addition to the
above mentioned, we can give the following examples of usage:
asymmetrical,
achromatic, amoral, apolitical, atypical, atheist, anemic, apathetic, asleep, ablaze,
alike, aloud, ashore, atop
, and others.
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Prefix
de-
is usually used to cancel an action. However, over time, the prefix
de-
has acquired several new meanings: it can indicate deprivation, removal of
something, disapproval or intensity of a word, so its synonyms can be
down, down
from, from, off
.
De-
is a productive affix, often used in the creation of neologisms.
Changes in the structure are due to a combination of different languages, from Anglo-
French
de-, des-,
partly from Latin
de- ‘
from, down, away’ (from
de
, preposition)
andpartly from Latin
dis-
; Latin
de
is similar to Old Irish
di
‘from,’ Old English
tō
is
similar to
to-, dis-.
[10] Thus, it is used in:
detoxify, decolonize, dehydrate, declassify,
deconstruct, decolorize, descend, depress/depression, degrade/degradation,
decrease, decline, deprive, delete, detach, deflect, deceive, devastate, debate
, etc.
Prefix
dis-,
like the previous one, means a negative action or separation, such
as "apart", "not", "opposite of", i.e. it is attached to verbs to show the cancellation of
an action. It has high performance.
It comes from Latin
dis-
"to separate, to divide" (sources also include Old
English
te-,
Old Saxon
ti- ,
Old High German
ze-,
German
zer-
). The prefix is a
secondary form of
dwis-
and is thus related to the Latin
bis
"twice" (originally
dvis
)
and to
duo
, through the concept of "two ways, in two" (hence "separated, divided")"
[10]. It can be found in the following words:
disability, disaffirm; disbar; disbelief;
discontent; dishearten; dislike, disown, disprove, dishonest, disagree, discomfort,
displease, disconnect, disable, disgrace
, and others. Its synonyms can be
un-, de
-.
Let's move on to the prefixes
en-, em-
, which mean "to bring, provide or
invest" and can also mean "in" something or "on" something. They are highly
productive. They are inherited from the
French assimilation of
en-
"in something" or from the same development in
the later Latin
in-
(to
im-
). There is no loss of structure. They are present in
environment, enable, encode, ensure, encourage, endure, enrich, enlarge, enforce,
embrace, empower, emdiv, emerge, employment, emission, emulation, emigratory
,
etc.
Prefix
fore-
usually denotes something that is ahead of or precedes something
else in time, space, or position, so it is highly productive in the language. Historically,
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it is a part of Middle English and comes from Old English
fore
-, from Proto-Germanic
forē-,
from Proto-Germanic
fura-, furai
and means "before, in front of, for, previously,
once", and from Indo-European
per-
"formerly; through, throughout". [10]
Accordingly, the form has changed to a more convenient one with the development
of the language. It is used in the words
forecast, forehead, forefront, foresee, foretell,
forewarn, forefather, forethought
. The Ukrainian equivalent may be
перед
- (as in
передбачити
).
Prefix
im-
asserts the opposite meaning and is one of several variants of the
prefix
in-,
which means ‘in, into, on, toward’.
Im-
can also be used as a variant of the
prefix
in-
in the negative.
Depending on the specific word, the prefix
im-
can come from Latin, Old
French, Ingvöon (a Germanic language of the North Sea), Old Norse, Old English,
and Middle English. [10] In addition, there is an explanation of their use and
pronunciation:
im-
before labial consonants (p, b, m) –
impossible, immaculate
, etc;
iŋ-
before soft palatal consonants (k, g) as in
iŋcredible, iŋgratitude
, etc.;
in-
before
everything else. [10] There is no loss of structure. Examples of usage include:
imbalance, immature, imperfect, impossible, immortal, impolite, impeccable.
Also
implant, immigration, improvise, implement, immediately, impulsive, etc.; involve,
intend, inject, incomplete, invent, insignificant, independent, inexpensive
, etc.
Prefix
re-
usually indicates the repetition, resumption or cancellation of an
action or state, and thus has a high productivity in the language. The Latin prefix
rĕ-
is derived from Proto-Italic
wre
("again"), which has a parallel in Umbrian
re-,
but its
further etymology is unknown. However, it has a general meaning that can be
rendered as "back". The great productivity of the prefix
re-
in Classical
Latin tends to obscure its original meaning. It is used in
rebuild, reclaim,
replay, reconsider, reconnect, rewrite, recharge, reread, revisit, remake, recycle.
Prefix
inter-
means "between" or "among" [10] and is often used to indicate a
connection between two or more things or to indicate interaction or mutual influence,
and thus has a high productivity. The Latin term is believed to be derived from the
proto-Indo-European
enter-,
which also means ‘between’ or ‘among’. There is no loss
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of structure. Examples are:
interdependent, international, intermission, interaction,
intersection, intergalactic, interpersonal, internet, intermediate, interest.
Prefix
pre-
is usually used to indicate the meaning of a previous action,
something that happened before. It is highly productive in the language. It is a word-
forming element meaning "before", from Old French
pre-
and Latin
pre-,
both from
Latin
prae
(adverb and preposition) "before", from
peri-
(cognate also with Oscan
prai,
Umbrian
pre
, from Sanskrit
pare
"while", Greek
parai
"on", Gallic
are-
"before", Lithuanian
prie
"at", Old Slavonic
pri
"at
something", Gothic
faura,
Old English
fore
"before"). [10] There is no loss of structure. Used in:
preview,
prevent,
predict,
prejudice,
prepare,
preset,
prehistorically,
prearrangement, prefix, prepare, precedent, precise
.
Prefix
un-
usually means "not", so the word formed with it means the opposite
of the original.
For example:
not kind
means "unkind". The performance is high because this
prefix will never lose its relevance in use. The negation prefix has a long history: Old
English
un-
was formed from Proto
Germanic
un-
(sources also include Old Saxon, Old Frisian, Old High
German; related to German
un-,
Gothic
un-,
Dutch
on
-), from
n-,
from Sanskrit
a-,
an-
'not', Greek
a-, an-,
Old Irish
an-,
Latin
in-.
[10] It is often used in euphemisms
(for example,
untrue
instead of
lie
). There is no loss of
structure. It is used in
unhappy, unfair, unusual, unnecessary, unstable,
unconscious, uncover,
unplug, unload, unlikely, uncommon, unseen, unfit, unravel, undo,
untangle, unbreakable
.
Thus, a detailed etymological analysis of English prefixes and the main
sources of word
borrowing shows the connections and relationships between prefixes and their
etymological roots,
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which helps not only to understand the meaning of words but also to study the
cultural and historical
context of their origin.
Etymological analysis of English suffixes
Let's start with the suffix
-able,
which means "capable, susceptible, suitable
for something,
aspiring to something, given to something", related in meaning to the word
able
, which can be
observed in borrowed words from Latin; it is used in English as a highly
productive suffix to form
adjectives by adding to the stem of any origin (
teachable; photographable
). It
was first recorded in
1275–1325 in Middle English from Middle French, in turn from Latin
habilis
'convenient', equivalent
to
hab(ēre)
'to have, to hold'
-ilis
of adjectival suffix;
-ile
. [10] There is no loss
of structure. Examples
of usage are:
comfortable, adjustable, reliable, understandable, acceptable,
remarkable, achievable,
respectable, enjoyable, adaptable, valuable, unbreakable, comparable,
profitable, inevitable,
sustainable, reasonable, unforgettable, formidable, desirable
.
Suffix
-ity
is used to form abstract nouns that denote state, quality or degree
of something and
is highly productive in English. Derived from Middle English -
ite,
Old French
-ete
(modern French
–
ité
) and directly from Latin
-itatem
(nominative
-itas
), the suffix denoting a
state or condition is
composed of
-i-
(from the stem or connecting word) the common abstract
suffix -
tas
. [10] The suffix
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has undergone transformations in structure throughout history. It has formed
the following words:
equality, diversity, integrity, serenity, prosperity, authenticity, stability,
creativity, flexibility,
universality, generosity, sensitivity, capability, curiosity, fertility, identity,
community, opportunity,
authority, responsibility.
Suffix
-ness
means "state, quality" and is used with an adjective to say
something about the
state or a particular feature of that adjective. It has high performance. It is
derived from Old English
-nes(s),
from Proto-Germanic
in-assu-
(cognate with Old Saxon
-nissi,
Middle
Dutch
-nisse,
Dutch -
nis,
Old High German -
nissa,
German -
nis,
Gothic -
inassus
) from -
in-,
originally belonging to the
noun stem,
-assu-,
an abstract noun suffix, probably from the same root as
Latin -
tudo.
[10] The
structure was shortened for ease of use. Examples of usage are the following:
happiness, sadness,
kindness, darkness, sweetness, richness, fitness, weakness, loneliness,
cleverness, softness,
openness, fairness, hardness, coldness, politeness, laziness, tenderness,
brightness.
Suffix
-age
usually forms abstract nouns or nouns of mass from different parts
of speech,
originally found in loanwords from French (as in
voyage; courage
) and is
productive in English with
the meanings of aggregate, (as in
coinage
), process (as in
coverage
), result,
fact or physical effect (as
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in
seepage
) and quantity, measure or fee (as in
tonnage
). It is used in various
fields. First registered
in 1225–75; (for a noun) in Middle English, from Anglo-French, Old French
aage, eage
, equivalent
to
aé, eé
(from Latin
ae(vi)tās
"age, life", from
aev(um
) "eternity, period,
time"
-itās -ity
)
-age -age
;
the verb derived from the noun. [10] There is no loss of structure. It is used in
the following words:
advantage, message, passage, marriage, beverage, coverage, damage,
package, voltage, heritage,
courage, voyage, percentage, language, storage, carriage, blockage.
Suffix
-al
with the general meaning "of a kind that refers to something, has a
certain form or
character" of what is called a stem. It can be observed in loanwords from Latin
(
autumnal, natural,
pastoral
) and is productive in English according to the Latin usage model,
usually with stems of Latin
origin (
accidental, seasonal, tribal
). The origin is known to be from Latin
-
āle
(singular), -
ālia
(plural), nominalized neuter from
-ālis -al
; often replaces Middle English -
aille,
Old French or Latin
-ālia.
[10] There is no loss of structure. Examples of usage are:
regional,
cultural, personal,
professional, industrial, educational, environmental, structural, emotional,
financial, criminal,
medical, natural, practical, social, technical, physical, political, spiritual,
historical
, etc. The
Ukrainian equivalent is -
ний
.
Let's move on to the suffix -
cracy
, which is used in the meaning of "rule",
"government",
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"governing div" to form abstract nouns. It is found in borrowed words from
the Greek language. It
is highly productive and is used in political and sociological terms. It is formed
from Middle French
-cracie
(now -
cratie
), Late Latin -
cratia
, Greek -
kratia,
equivalent to
krát(os)
‘rule, strength, power’
(similar to
hard
)
-ia -y
. [10] There is no loss of structure; it is found in
democracy, bureaucracy,
aristocracy, theocracy, meritocracy, technocracy, plutocracy, autocracy,
kleptocracy,
corporatocracy, corruptocracy, cosmocracy, snobocracy, sociocracy,
mediocracy, meritocracy
. The
Ukrainian equivalent is -
тия
or -
ція.
Suffix
-er
is usually used with words of Germanic origin. English noun ending
corresponding
to the Latin
-or.
From the dictionary: Old English -
ere
(Old Norse also -
are
)
'a person who deals
with', from Proto-Germanic -
ari
(cognates: German -
er,
Swedish -
are,
Danish
-
ere
), from Proto
Germanic -
arjoz..
Some believe that this root is identical and is possibly a
borrowing of Latin -
arius
(see
-ary
). [10] There is no loss of structure. It is actively used in the language.
Examples are:
teacher,
runner, writer, singer, dancer, driver, baker, farmer, player, engineer,
gardener, painter, waiter,
programmer, designer, photographer, lawyer, speaker, builder, manager,
singer, lecturer.
The
-ion
suffix is used to form abstract nouns that denote an action, process,
state, condition,
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or result of something. It is one of the most common suffixes in the English
language, derived from
Latin and French, and thus has a high productivity. The origin is known to be
from the French
-ion
or directly from the Latin -
ionem
(nominative -
io
, genitive -
ionis
). [10] The
structure has been
shortened for ease of use. Examples of usage are:
completion, formation,
reaction, solution,
transition,
operation,
condition,
education,
reduction,
direction,
communication, innovation,
intention, examination, celebration, definition, separation, reservation
.
The word-forming morpheme -
ism
forms nouns denoting practice, system,
doctrine and is
highly productive in English. It is derived from French -
isme
or directly from
Latin -
isma, -ismus
(also Italian, Spanish -
ismo
, Dutch, German -
ismus
), from Greek -
ismos
(ending of a noun denoting
practice or study), from a verb stem ending in -
izein
, a verbal element denoting
the action of the noun
or adjective to which it is attached. [10] There is no loss of structure, but there
has been a shortening
in modern language. Examples of usage include:
capitalism, socialism,
communism, Buddhism,
Judaism, Hinduism, atheism, feminism, racism, terrorism, activism,
pacifism, optimism, realism,
romanticism, nationalism, pluralism, colonialism.
Suffix -
ous
forms adjectives from nouns, meaning "to have, to be full of, to
possess
something". It is a productive affix. The origin is known to be from Old French
-
ous, -eux
, from Latin
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-
osus,
from Middle English -
ous
, from Old French -
ous/-os/-us
, from Latin -
ōsus
. [10] There is no
loss of structure. It can be found in the words:
delicious, curious, ambitious,
courageous, dangerous,
fabulous, generous, mysterious, nervous, obvious, precious, furious,
glorious, harmonious, joyous,
luminous, marvellous, spacious.
So, we analysed the most commonly used English suffixes and identified the
main sources of
their borrowing: these are mainly Latin, French, Greek and others .
Conclusions
Thus, the etymological analysis of affixes is an important step in the
knowledge of linguistics,
as it allows us to better understand the influence of cultural context on the
structure of language and
word formation processes.№ 1 (28) 2024
In the course of the study one of the main ways of word formation in English,
namely
affixation was analysed.
Affixed morphemes make changes to the word, they are divided into word-
altering (modify
the grammatical meaning) and word-forming (modify the lexical meaning).
The former perform a
grammatical role without affecting the lexical meaning of the word. Word-
altering affixes are
universal, i.e. they are applicable to all (or most) words of a given grammatical
category.
Word-forming affixes introduce a new lexical meaning, additional to that
already contained in the root morpheme. Word-formation affixes are not universal,
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although, at first glance, they are used quite regularly in the process of creating new
words from the same root.
English suffixes and prefixes are diverse in origin. Along with productive
suffixes and prefixes, which help to keep adding new lexical items to the English
language, there are nonproductive or alloproductive ones that occur either in one or
more words or as a morphological feature of parts of speech.
The research work helped to draw conclusions that the most common means
of word formation in modern English is suffixation, which is based on adding a suffix
to the end of the word stem. Despite the fact that in addition to proper English suffixes,
there are a large number of suffixes borrowed from Latin, Greek, French and other
languages, proper suffixes still prevail in the language.
Suffixes are used to form nouns (both common and proper names, both
abstract and concrete names), adjectives, verbs, etc.
The next most common means of word formation in modern English is
prefixation, which is based on attaching a prefix to the beginning of a word stem. It
was included in the list of basic means because English has no endings and it is
prefixation that helps to distinguish between parts of speech.
Prefixes, unlike suffixes, do not change the grammatical character of a word,
and the newly formed words belong to the same parts of speech as their bases.
English, as an analytical language, uses prefixes and suffixes, but to a lesser
extent than Ukrainian. The use of prefixes in English often reflects the negation,
absence or change of the meaning of a word. Suffixes in English are used to form
different forms of words and to express grammatical categories.
The study of prefix and suffix morphemes in English allows us to better
understand the structural features of the language and their influence on word
formation and the expression of grammatical relations. The study of these morphemes
reveals the versatility of the language system, contributes to the enrichment of
linguistic richness and improves linguistic expression.
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